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1、<p> 1850單詞,1萬英文字符,3200漢字</p><p> 出處:Journal of Accounting and Economics Volume 53, Issues 1–2, February–April 2012, Pages 391–411</p><p> The incentives for tax planning</p><
2、p> Christopher S. Armstrong,Jennifer L. Blouin ,David F. Larcker</p><p> I. Introduction</p><p> This paper investigates the type of tax planning included in tax directors’ compensation co
3、ntracts. Using detailed data on tax director incentive compensation, we examine whether the incentives provided to tax directors are associated with lower effective tax rates and/or a wider book-tax gap. We als
4、o examine whether tax director incentives are more strongly linked to measures of the impact of taxes on cash flows (i.e., cash effective tax rates and taxable income) or earnings (i.e.,GAAP effectiv</p
5、><p> Our study complements and extends the recent literature that links tax planning with top executive incentive compensation (e.g.,Desai and Dharmapala, 2006; Rego and Wilson, 201
6、0) and executive/corporate culture (e.g., Frank et al., 2009; Dyreng et al., 2010).1 Although these studies show that both the incentives of top management and corporate culture have a significan
7、t impact on effective tax rates, it is not clear whether top management directly engages in tax planning or whether the documen</p><p> To investigate the relative importance of various measures o
8、f tax planning in tax director incentive compensation contracts, we use a proprietary data set that includes detailed compensation information for many executives, including the members of the tax department, f
9、or a sizeable sample of mostly large U.S.films. This unique data exhibits two advantages relative to that used in prior research. First, it allows us to directly measure the incentive compensation of the e
10、xecutives who are directl</p><p> We ?rst examine the association between executive incentives and the GAAP and Cash effective tax rates (ETRs). Recent research presents evidence that variation in corp
11、orate tax planning is captured by ETRs (Dyreng et al., 2008; Robinson et al.,2010). We ?nd a strong negative relationship between tax director incentives and the GAAP ETR and no relationship between tax director inc
12、entives and the Cash ETR. These results indicate that tax directors are provided with incentives to reduce the tax exp</p><p> We next examine the book-tax gap, because this measure has recently receiv
13、ed considerable attention from the U.S. Treasury, regulators, and academics. We find no evidence of a relationship between tax director incentive compensation and the spread between pre-tax book incom
14、e and taxable income. Since the book-tax gap is defined as the difference between pre-tax book income and taxable income, there are econometric reasons to disaggregatethis variable into its two compon
15、ents (i.e., pre-tax book i</p><p> Finally, we examine the relationship between tax director incentive compensation and two measures developed to explicitly capture tax aggressiveness: a modified&
16、#160;version of Frank et al.’s (2009) DTAX measure and Wilson’s (2009) measure of tax sheltering. We find no evidence that tax directors’ incentive compensation is associated with either measure
17、of tax aggressiveness. Collectively, our results indicate that tax directors are provided incentives to reduce the level of tax expense reported in t</p><p> The remainder of the paper consists of the
18、following seven sections. Section 2 provides a description of the possible roles of the tax director, and Section 3 reviews the prior empirical literature on tax planning. Section 4 describes our proprietary sa
19、mple and other data used in our analysis. We develop our variable measurement and methodological approach in Section 5. Our results are presented in Section 6, and sensitivity analyses are provided in Section 7.
20、0;Conclusions and summary comments ar</p><p> 2. Role of the tax director</p><p> Although tax directors are responsible for one of the firm’s largest outflows of cash and
21、one of the largest expenses on the income statement, little is known about how these executives are compensated. Since tax directors are rarely among the top five highest t paid executives, information abo
22、ut their annual compensation and equity holdings is not available in annual proxy (Form DEF 14A) ?lings. Therefore, researchers are typically unable to directly observe the parameters of tax director incen</p>
23、<p> The tax director fills at least three roles. First, the tax director is responsible for compliance. Since multinational firms are typically required to file thousands of ta
24、x forms annually, it is not unreasonable to infer that compliance is the tax director’s primary duty. Second, the tax director may serve as an advisor to the firm’s senior executives by providing expertise
25、 in minimizing the tax cost of the firm’s operating, financing, and investing activities. As an advisor, the tax director w</p><p> In terms of selecting the compensation contract for th
26、e tax director, traditional agency theory suggests that compensation should be based on performance measures that are controllable by the agent (Holmstrom, 1979; Lambert, 2001). Therefore, if the tax direc
27、tor’s primary responsibility is compliance, then the incentive component of pay should not be based on cash ?ow or earnings objectives (i.e., there are more direct measures of tax director effort, such as fines
28、 paid for noncompliance). On th</p><p> Our characterization of the various roles of the tax director is consistent with the Tax Executive Institute, Inc.’s (TEI) (2004–2005) Corporate Tax Departm
29、ent Survey, which provides information on several dimensions of the operations of firms’ tax departments.3 This document is the compilation of the responses of approximately 1,300 tax departments (of which
30、 945 were at publicly traded firms), representing a 57% response rate, to a mid-2004 survey generated by a consulting ?rm. Although the sur</p><p> The senior tax executives of the public sur
31、vey respondents typically hold the title of tax director (40%) or vice president (35%) (described in aggregate hereafter as tax directors), and those titles suggest that these individuals hold high level positions i
32、n their respective ?rms. Sixty-?ve percent of the tax directors report to the chief financial officer The majority (60%) of public companies report that their tax function is centralized and globally
33、integrated, so the tax director is respons</p><p> department’s budget, 60% is allocated toward compensation and 20% toward outside consultants. Finally, tax directors appear involved in the overall op
34、erations of the ?rm, as the survey reports that tax directors spend 9% of their time aiding in operational issues of the ?rm (including governance and Sarbanes-Oxley compliance).</p><p> The
35、TEI Survey also provides some descriptive information on the performance metrics of a firm’s top tax executive. Seventy-one percent of the survey’s senior tax executives of public companies reported that ‘‘lack
36、 of surprises’’ was used by senior management to evaluate their performance. Since the effective tax rate (63%) is of slightly more importance than generating cash savings (57%) for performance evaluation, it a
37、ppears that income statement surprises could potentially dominate cash ?ow s</p><p> Our analysis is based on the maintained assumption that the tax director is not the primary executive charged with
38、160;selecting the firms investment activity. Although tax directors are involved in transaction planning and investment location decisions, their role appears to be primarily as an advisor. This
39、characterization is consistent with the TEI survey evidence documenting that the majority of the tax director’s time involves tasks related to return compliance and research. In later tests, we </p><
40、p><b> 稅收籌劃的動機</b></p><p><b> 1.導言</b></p><p> 本文調(diào)查了稅務主管薪酬合同中的稅收計劃類型。運用稅務主管獎勵機制中的詳細數(shù)據(jù),我們調(diào)查了給予稅務主管獎勵是否與降低有效稅率或增大財稅缺口相關聯(lián)。我們也考察了對稅務主管獎勵是否與衡量稅收對資金流動的影響(資金有效稅率以及該征稅收入)或收入
41、(會計行業(yè)監(jiān)督部門認定為常規(guī)的會計信條即有效稅率與稅前賬目收益)的大小更為密切相關。最后,我們調(diào)查了稅務主管的獎勵機制與積極的稅收計劃委托之間是否有關聯(lián)。</p><p> 我們的研究補充和延伸了近期關于高級管理層獎勵制度與稅務計劃的聯(lián)系(例如,德賽和達馬帕拉, 2006; 雷格和沃爾遜, 2010)以及有關企業(yè)文化方面的文獻( 例如, 弗蘭克等人, 2009; 戴恩等人, 2010)。盡管這些研究顯示高級管理
42、層獎勵機制和企業(yè)文化對有效稅率有非常重大的影響,但是高級管理層是否直接參與稅務計劃或者入檔的稅收是否是公司決策的投資、理財以其運作的產(chǎn)物都有待確認。例如,我們觀察到管理層的獎勵制度與稅務計劃衡量的關系可能是一個間接來自于投資決策而非深思熟慮的稅務計劃的結果。為了更好的理解績效指標與觀察稅收屬性之間的關系,我們有必要明確的考慮稅務主管的獎勵機制,因為稅務主管才是統(tǒng)籌全公司稅收機制的管理者。然而,盡管稅務主管被高級管理層授予決定稅務計劃的權
43、利,但是卻沒有能力獨立地影響公司的行為,如果稅務計劃的制定僅僅成為公司高級管理層的義務,那我們也就沒有可能觀察到稅務主管的獎勵機制與控制高級管理層的獎勵機制后制定稅務計劃之間的聯(lián)系了。</p><p> 為了研究稅務主管獎勵機制合同中使用多種方式制定稅務計劃的重要性,我們使用了一組獨有的數(shù)據(jù),其中包括很多管理人員的獎勵情況,這其中也包括稅務部門的人員,這對于美國的大型電影公司而言也是一個相當大的例子。這組獨特的
44、數(shù)據(jù)相對于以往調(diào)研的數(shù)據(jù)向我們展示了兩個優(yōu)勢。第一,它允許我們直接計算負責公司稅務的管理者的獎勵金額,第二,它也告知了我們管理團隊中其他人的獎勵金額。公司內(nèi)部的標準讓我們能夠認識到給予稅務主管的獎勵標準是獨特的,是不同于公司一般獎勵制度的。</p><p> 我們首先研究一下管理層獎勵機制與公認會計準則以及資金有效稅率(ETR)之間的關聯(lián)。近期調(diào)查中提出的證據(jù)表明公司稅務計劃的不同受到資金有效稅率的影響。(戴恩
45、等人, 2008; 羅賓遜等人,2010)我們發(fā)現(xiàn)稅務主管獎勵機制和公認會計準則是強烈的負相關關系,而稅務主管獎勵和資金有效稅率之間沒有關系。這些結果表明,稅務主管被提供獎勵是為了減少財務報表中的稅收費用。因此我們的發(fā)現(xiàn)與公認會計準則相符,資金有效稅率成為有效測評稅務主管行為的一種方式。據(jù)此,它也將在獎勵機制合同中占有更大的比重。</p><p> 接下來我們研究一下財稅缺口的問題,因為最近這個問題在美國財政部
46、、管理者和學術界之間引起了廣泛關注。我們沒有找到稅前收入和該征稅收入之間的差距與稅務主管獎勵制度有聯(lián)系的證據(jù)。因為財稅缺口的定義為稅前收入與該征稅收入的區(qū)別,那么我們用計量經(jīng)濟學的原因來拆解這個可變物將其分為兩個部分(稅前收入與該征稅收入)。另外,區(qū)分賬務處理與稅務處理可以幫我們找到形成稅務計劃的證據(jù)(稅務計劃同時減少賬務和稅收收入)。以上結論顯示稅務主管獎勵機制和減少應納稅所得額沒有關聯(lián)。</p><p>
47、最后,我們來看一下稅務主管獎勵機制與兩種明確解釋稅收激進方法之間的關系:一份修正稿為FRANK 2009版本的DTAX方式,另一個是WILSON2009版本的避稅方法。我們沒有找到稅務主管獎勵機制與任何一種稅務激進方法有聯(lián)系的證據(jù)??傊?,我們的結果顯示為稅務主管提供獎勵機制是為了降低財務報告中的稅收水平,但是不能說明獎勵機制的給予是基于帳務處理與稅務處理的不同,也不基于資金有效稅率或任何稅收激進法。</p><p&g
48、t; 本文剩余部分由以下7章組成。第二章為大家描述了稅務主管可能扮演的幾種角色,第三章回顧關于稅收計劃的預先實證文獻。第四章介紹了我們特有的例子和在我們的分析中使用的其他數(shù)據(jù)。在第五章我們?yōu)榇蠹姨峁┝硕喾N測量和方法論。第六章講述我們的結論。第七章提供敏感性分析。第八章是總結和結束語。</p><p> 2. 稅務主管的角色</p><p> 雖然稅務主管負責公司最大的資金支出和公司收
49、入中的最大花費,但卻對管理階層的獎勵知之甚少。因為稅務主管一般很少能進入公司最高收入的前五名,所以在年度報告里很難得知管理階層的年終獎金和股權控股情況。因此,研究人員通常不能直接獲得稅務主管的薪酬參數(shù)。</p><p> 稅務主管至少有三個任務。第一任務就是合規(guī)。作為跨國企業(yè),一年會有成千上萬的各種稅單要填寫,所以合規(guī)是稅務主管的首要責任。第二,稅務主管要給公司高層管理者做顧問,提供關于公司操作、理財以及投資過
50、程中能使公司交稅最少的專業(yè)性意見。作為顧問,當公司需要制定投資策略時,稅務主管應到場,但是不對最終選定的投資方案負責。第三,稅務主管也負責進行稅務規(guī)劃,當從稅收本身即可盈利時,稅務主管可以主動開發(fā)投資機會。我們把第三種職能叫做“主動計劃”任務,因為這種任務相對于顧問的任務更激進。單憑經(jīng)驗去區(qū)分建議者和主動計劃者還是很難的,因為兩者都是為了降低稅負,兩個任務之間也很容易有重疊地帶。</p><p> 就選擇稅務主
51、管的獎勵機制合同而言,傳統(tǒng)的理論認為獎勵應該基于稅務主管的日常表現(xiàn)(霍姆斯特姆, 1979;蘭伯特, 2001)。因此,如果稅務主管的第一任務是合規(guī)任務,那么獎勵就不應該基于資金流或盈余目標(這些都是更來源于稅務主管的努力,比如從不合規(guī)任務中獲得的獎金)。另一方面,稅務主管和主動計劃者的獎勵應該是一個公司財務屬性的基礎,盡管這些性能指標在一定基礎上是可以被稅務主管控制的。</p><p> 我們對稅務主管任務特
52、性的描述與稅務執(zhí)行機構(2004-2005)在稅務部門調(diào)查報告中的描述是一致的。他們的報告對公司稅務部門多個方面的運作都有所描述。這份文件歸納了約1300個稅務部門(其中945個是上市公司)的回答,是在2004年中期由一個顧問公司發(fā)起的調(diào)查,具有57%的反饋率。盡管這份調(diào)查主要關注稅務部門的一些特殊任務(比如,在國內(nèi)外時間花費的對比,各類負責實體及其關系問題),同樣也提供了一些關于稅務部門組織結構和有關稅務部門人事特性的描述。</
53、p><p> 在調(diào)查問卷中的高級稅務管理人在公司的職務一般是稅務主管(40%)或副總經(jīng)理(35%)(以下合稱為稅務管理人),這些職務說明這些人在他們各自的公司都有較高的地位。65%的稅務管理人向他們的主管財務領導匯報工作,60%的上市公司的稅務功能是集中的或是全球統(tǒng)一的,所以大部分稅務管理人是對全球稅務負責的。說到具體任務,大多數(shù)的稅務主管都在做調(diào)研(33%)和合規(guī)(28%)。平均來講稅務主管9%的時間用于稅務規(guī)范
54、,8%的時間用于稅務審計。說到稅務部門的預算,60%將用于獎金,20%給外部的顧問們。最終,稅務主管是參與到公司運營當中的,調(diào)查報告顯示稅務主管有9%的時間是用在輔佐公司事務的運營(包括管理體制和薩班斯-奧克斯利法案合規(guī))。</p><p> TEI報告中也闡述了一些與公司高級稅務主管績效指標有關的信息。調(diào)查中71%的上市公司高級稅務管理人員的表現(xiàn)被主要管理階層評價為“缺少驚喜”。盡管有效稅率(63%)比節(jié)約資
55、金(57%)在表現(xiàn)中顯得更為重要,但收入情況的驚喜實際潛在支配著資金流的驚喜。需要注意的是資金節(jié)約沒有必要僅僅歸因于稅收,所以只有49%的受訪者表示他們的評價標準基于資金稅。有趣的是,在我們和12位稅務主管的談話中,他們說他們最基本的衡量標準是財務報表中“經(jīng)濟增加值”。但是只有19%的被調(diào)查者同意這個說法。最終,TEI調(diào)查報告顯示只有30%的稅務主管的獎勵是基于稅后衡量。</p><p> 我們的分析是基于一直
56、以來的一種假設:稅務主管在公司投資問題上不是決策第一人。盡管他們參與計劃和投資方案的實施,但是他們的首要責任是顧問。這種特性與TEI報告中的內(nèi)容相符,也就是說稅務主管的大部分時間和任務還是回歸到合規(guī)與調(diào)研之中。在最近的試驗中,我們通過學習一些特殊方法旨在取代激進的稅收計劃,試圖將稅務主管的顧問角色與主動參與計劃的角色分開。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)稅務主管和其他高級管理人員在職責上有重疊的地方,我們的分析也應該允許稅務計劃與其他管理者的獎勵有類似的關聯(lián)。
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