管理信息系統(tǒng)中英文翻譯資料

1、<p>　　Managemengt Information Systems</p><p>　　By a management information system,we propose the follow alternate definition: an integrated uer/machine system (usually computerized) for providing info

2、rmation to support decision making in an enterprise.</p><p>　　The key elements of this definition are </p><p>　　—An integrated uer/machine system </p><p>　　—For proving information&

3、lt;/p><p>　　—To support decision making</p><p>　　—In an enterprise</p><p>　　A management information system utilizes</p><p>　　—Computer hardware and software</p>&l

4、t;p>　　—Manual procedures</p><p>　　—Models for analysis</p><p>　　—A database</p><p>　　Just as there is a logical flow of materials in the creation of a product, there is logical f

5、low of information in a management information system.In manufacturing,raw materials move through a process that transforms the raw materials into usable products. In a similar fashion, in an information system,data are

6、supplied to a system(input), the data are manipulated(processed),and they are transformed into information(output).In its simplest form ,a management information systemed may be depicted </p><p>　　Fig.10.1 A

7、n Input-Process-Output Medel of a Management Information System</p><p>　　We may further enhance our understanding of management information systems by discussing their general function and major elements. Th

8、ese systems exist in most enterprises, whether public or private, primarily to assist management in improving revenues, reducing costs and managing assets. Therefore, improving the performance of an enterprise is the ul

9、timate objective of management infoemation systems- not the storage of data, the generation of reports,or even”getting the right information to th</p><p>　　Transaction processing (TP), reporting systems(RS),

10、 and decision-support systems(DSS) are the major elements of a management infortion system.The primary role of TP in an enterprise is the collection, storage,and processing of data in such a way that transactions within

11、an enterprise are described and thus the procedural actions of the enterprise supported .More specifically, a TP system may be viewed as a computer-based means of capturing transaction so that may be recreated. The out o

12、f a trans</p><p>　　Reporting systems(RS) and decision-support systems (DSS) often are confused with each other and thus misunderstood. Yet, each has a clear orientation. And distinctions may be drawn in term

13、s of their areas of impact on the payoff to an enterprise and their relevance to a manager. So an RS provides standardized reports based on well-known policies, procedures, and rules. And a DSS provides information to he

14、lp management with new , unstructured decision making.</p><p>　　A pyramid may be used to illustrate the dimensions of an information system(Fig.10.2).The vertical dimension represents the levels of managemen

15、t (first-line, middle, and top management) , and the horizontal dimension represents the main functional areas of a business firm (for example, marketing, production, and finace).The depth dimension indicates the major m

16、anagement information systems that provide support for managerial activities: the structured and required reporting systems(RS) and decis</p><p>　　Fig.10.2 The Dimension of a Management Information System<

17、;/p><p>　　As the figure illustrates, RS and DSS (drawing on the TP system ) are utilized at all managerial levels and acress all function areas . There, it is te management information system(of TP ,RS ,and DSS

18、 ) that integrates both the level of management and functional areas .To further demonstrate how the subsystems fit together, the definition of MIS is recreated in the following table , with the components of MIS related

19、 to the defintional frame work.</p><p>　　Table10.1 Definition of Management Information System (MIS)</p><p>　　A management information system is </p><p>　　.An integrated user/machin

20、e system .Computer, models</p><p>　　.For providing information .System output</p><p>　　.To support decision making .MIS.DSS.OR/MS</p><p>　　.In an enterprise

21、 .Frameworkforthe information</p><p>　　The system utilizes</p><p>　　.Computer hardware and software .Computer system</p><p>　　.Manual procedures .Books,ma

22、nuals,people</p><p>　　.Models for analysis .Operations research</p><p>　　.A database .Computer ,people</p><p>　　Developing a compensation plan

23、to pay executive, managerial, and professional employees is similar in many respects to developing a play for and employees. The basic aims of the plan are the same in that the goal is to attract good employees and maint

24、ain their commitment. Furthermore, the basic methods of job evaluation , classifying jobs, ranking them , or assigning points to them ,for instance, are about as applicable to managerial and professional jobs as to prod

25、uction and clerical ones.</p><p>　　1)Yet for managerial and professional jobs , job evaluation provides only a partial answer to the question of how to pay these employees, Such jobs tend to emphasize nonqua

26、ntifiable factor like judgment and problem solving more than do production and clerical jobs . There is also a tendency to pay manager and professionals based on abilitybased on their performance or on what they can do –

27、 rather than on the basis of static job demands like working conditions. Developing compensation plans for m</p><p>　　Compensation Managers There are five elements in a manager’s compensation package: salary

28、, benefits, short-term incentive, long-term incentives, and perquisites.</p><p>　　The amount of salary managers are paid usually depends on the value of the person’s work to organization and how well the per

29、son is discharging his or her responsibilities.3)AS with other jobs , the value of the person’s work is usually determined through job analysis and salary surveys and salary surveys and the resulting fine tuning of salar

30、y levels.</p><p>　　Salary is the cornerstone of executive compensation : It is on this element that the others are layered, with benefits, incentives , and perquisites normally awarded in some proportion to

31、the manager’s base pay . </p><p>　　4) There is considerable disagreement regarding what determines executive pay and, therefore , whether top executives are worth what are paid . At the lower-management leve

32、ls(like first-line supervisor),there is no debate ; supervisors’ pay grades are usually set so that their median salaries are 10% to 25% above those of the highest-paid workers supervised. And many employers even pay sup

33、ervisors for scheduled overtime, although the Fair Labor Standards Act does not require them to do so.</p><p>　　It is at the top-management levels that questions regarding pay abound . The traditional wisdom

34、 is that a top manager’s salary is closely tied to the size of the firm . Yet two experts who tested this idea for the 148 highest-paid executives in the United States concluded that the level of executive responsibility

35、 (as measured by total assets, total sales,total number of shares in the company, total value of the shares, and total corporate profits) is not an important variable in determing execu</p><p>　　Yet there is

36、 conflicting evidence. In one study , for instance , the researcher found that a statistical analysis of the total cash compensation of the chief executive officers of 129 companies showed that they were paid for both re

37、sponsibility and performance. This researcher fond that four compensable factors-company size , profitability, number of employees, and experience-accounted for 83% of the differences in pay .Therefore, it appears that t

38、here are rational, acceptable , and abiding prin</p><p>　　In any case, shareholder activism is combining with congressional reform and other changes to tighten up the restrictions on what firms pay their top

39、 executives . For example, the Securities and Exchange Commission voted in 1992 to approve final rules rules regarding executive compensation communications.The chief executive officer’s pay is always to be disclosed as

40、well as other officers’ pay if their compensation( salary and bonus) exceeds $100,000.5 And for bankers,the Federal Deposit Insuran</p><p>　　The general trend today is to reduce the acceptance of base salary

41、 and boost the importance of short-and long-term executive incentives. The main issue here is identifying the appropriate performance measures for each type of incentive and then determining how to link these to pay . Ty

42、pical short-term measures of shareholder value include revenue growth and operating profit margin. Long-term shareholder value measures include rate of return above some predetermined base.</p><p>　　Compens

43、ating professional employees Compensating nonsupervisory professional employees like engineers and scientists presents unique problems. 6) Analytical jobs put a heavy premium on creativity and problem solving, compensabl

44、e factors not easily compared or measured. Furthermore, the professional’s economic impact on the firm is often related only indirectly to the person’s actual efforts; for example,the success of an engineer’s invention d

45、epends on many factors, like how well it is produced </p><p>　　The job evaluation methods we explained previously can be used for evaluating professional jobs. The compensable factors here tend to focus on p

46、roblem solving , creativity, job scope, and technical knowledge and expertise. Both the point method and factor comparison methods have been used , although the job classification method seems most popular . Here a serie

47、s of grade descriptions are written, and each position is slotted into the grade having the most appropriate definition.</p><p>　　Yet， in praction, traditional methods of job evaluation are rarely used for p

48、rofessional jobs since “it is simply not possible to identify factors and degrees of factors which meaningfully differentiate among the values of professional work ”. “Knowledge and the skill of applying it ,” as one exp

49、ert notes , “are extremely difficult to quantify and measure.”</p><p>　　As a result , most employers use a market-pricing approach in evaluating professional jobs . They price professional jobs in the market

50、place to the best of their ability to establish the values for benchmark jobs . These benchmark jobs and the employer’s other professional jobs are then slotted into a salary structure. Specifically, each professional di

51、scipline ( like mechanical engineering or electrical engineering ) usually ends up having four to six grade levels , each of which requires a fai</p><p>　　Manager must assume certain roles in order to accomp

52、lish the different objectives for which they are responsible. In addition , all managers must possess specific managerial skills if they are to adequately perform the function .</p><p>　　Managerial Roles<

53、/p><p>　　Henry Mintzberg’s studies of executive behavior led him to conclude that managers are required to assume a variety of roles . A role is a set of expected behaviors for a specific position. 1) Mintzberg

54、’s roles can be grouped into three main categories: interpersonal , informational , and decisional . Mintzberg’s believed that all three roles are common to all levels of management. They provide an interesting perspecti

55、ve of the functions of management.</p><p>　　2) Interperesonal roles result form the fact that managers are called upon to interact with numerous groups and individuals. The three interpersonal roles are figu

56、rehead, leader , and liaison . The figurehead role refers to ceremonial duties such as throwing out the first pitch for company-sponsored Little League game . The leadership role refers to the manager’s work in motivatin

57、g subordinates to meet the unit’s objectives. The liaison role comes form the manager’s responsibility to interact wi</p><p>　　Informational roles exist because managers are important conduits of information

58、 in the organization . Managers spend a great deal of their time collecting and disseminating information. The three informational roles are information nerve center, disseminator, and spokesperson . The nerve center rol

59、e means that the manager is the major information receiver within the work unit . The disseminating role refers to the task of informing subordinates of information that is implemented to them and nec</p><p>

60、;　　Decisional roles refer to management’s decision-making process. The four managerial roles in this category are entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator . A manager assumes an entrepreneuri

61、al role when he or she initiates projects to improve the department or work unit . When problems such as a missed delivery to a key customer arise , the manager must adopt a disturbance handling role . 4) The decision on

62、 how to allocate the unit’s money , time, materials, and other </p><p>　　The Skill Needed for Effective Management：What skills do managers need to possess? 5) Noted management authority Rober L.Katz has sug

63、gested three specific skills that are required in all typed of managerial situations .Katz’s managerial skills relate to technical . interpersonal, and cobceptual factors in the manager’s job.</p><p>　　Techn

64、ical skills refer to the ability to use various tools and methods to accomplish specific managerial aspects of a work task. A good illustration of the importance of technical skill is the factory supervisor who must be f

65、amiliar with how machinery works in order to correct problems that may arise on the plant floor.</p><p>　　Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to lead , motivate , and communicate with people to accompl

66、ish certain objectives. Interpersonal skills are also important during interactions with supervisors and people outside the work unit such as vendors , customers,and the public. These skills are important at all levels i

67、n the organization. A current adaptation of this skill is the cultural awareness necessary to function in today’s workplace, with its ethnically diversified labor force.</p><p>　　Copceptual skills refer to t

68、he ability understand and cording the full range of organizational objective and actives .This ability to analyze the entire organization is particularly important to top management. It is a necessary ingredient in the d

69、evelopment of strategic plan for the organization.</p><p><b>　　管理信息系統(tǒng)</b></p><p>　　我們對管理信息系統(tǒng)提出以下定義，即一種為企業(yè)決策提供信息的集成用戶/計算機系統(tǒng)。</p><p>　　這一定義包括如下四個關(guān)鍵要素：用戶/計算機集成系統(tǒng)，提供信息，幫助決策、

70、在企業(yè)內(nèi)部。</p><p>　　管理信息系統(tǒng)運用計算機硬件和軟件、操作說明、分析模型和數(shù)據(jù)庫。</p><p>　　正如產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)須有材料的邏輯流向一樣，管理信息系統(tǒng)也有信息的邏輯流向。在制造業(yè)中，原料經(jīng)歷一個過程，轉(zhuǎn)變成有用的產(chǎn)品。同理，在信息系統(tǒng)中，給系統(tǒng)提供數(shù)據(jù)（輸入），對數(shù)據(jù)進行加工（處理），然后才能將它轉(zhuǎn)化為信息（輸出）。管理信息系統(tǒng)可最簡單地描述為一個輸入——處理——輸出的三

71、步模型（IPO）參見圖10.1）。由于該模型能用來說明所有管理信息系統(tǒng)，故理解它十分重要。請注意：在此圖中，管理信息系統(tǒng)通過技術(shù)處理（收集、編碼、存儲、處理、解碼和報告）將企業(yè)所獲數(shù)據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)化可用信息。</p><p>　　圖10.1管理信息系統(tǒng)的輸入——處理——輸出模型</p><p>　　通過討論其一般功能和主要要素，我們可進一步加強對管理信息系統(tǒng)的理解。這些信息管理系統(tǒng)存在與大多書公有或

72、私有企業(yè)中，主要目的是協(xié)助管理層提高收益、降低成本和管理資產(chǎn)。所以，管理信息系統(tǒng)的最終目的是改善企業(yè)業(yè)績，而不是數(shù)據(jù)儲存、生成報告甚至是“在恰當(dāng)時間給正確的人提供準(zhǔn)確的信息”。 信息管理系統(tǒng)可通過幫助提高管理決策質(zhì)量來最有效地改善企業(yè)業(yè)績。</p><p>　　交易處理（TP）、報告系統(tǒng)（RS）和決策（DSS）為管理信息系統(tǒng)的幾個主要要素。對企業(yè)而言，交易處理的主要作用是收集、儲存和加工數(shù)據(jù)，這樣就能對企業(yè)內(nèi)部的

73、交易進行描述，從而對企業(yè)的程序性活動加以支持。具體說來，交易處理系統(tǒng)可視為以計算機為工具獲取交易從而使交易活動得以繼續(xù)進行的一個系統(tǒng)。交易處理系統(tǒng)的信息輸出包括儲存的交易描述、企業(yè)實現(xiàn)主要目的所需的文件（發(fā)票、生產(chǎn)通知單、郵寄單、支付薪金的支票、工作通知單等等）以及（用于核實或提供參考用的）一段時間內(nèi)進行的交易清單。</p><p>　　報告系統(tǒng)和決策支持系統(tǒng)常被混淆，所以常導(dǎo)致誤解。然而，它們其實各有明晰的方向

74、。其區(qū)別表現(xiàn)在它們各自對企業(yè)收益的影響以及它們與經(jīng)理的相關(guān)性。報告系統(tǒng)依據(jù)熟知的政策、程序和規(guī)則提出標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的報告，而決策支持系統(tǒng)卻是為管理部門就新的、尚未成形的決策提供信息。</p><p>　　如圖10.2所示，信息系統(tǒng)的各個層面也可用金字塔式的圖形來說明縱側(cè)面體現(xiàn)的是管理的幾個層面，包括基層、中層和高層；橫側(cè)面代表企業(yè)的幾個主要功能區(qū)。如市場、生產(chǎn)和財務(wù)；其縱深層面指為管理活動提供支持的主要管理信息系統(tǒng)，即結(jié)構(gòu)

75、化的必要的報告系統(tǒng)和決策支持系統(tǒng)。而這些不同的面都建立在交易處理這個底座上。</p><p>　　圖10.2 管理信息系統(tǒng)層面圖</p><p>　　如圖所示，各個管理層和所有功能區(qū)都要用到（建立交易處理系統(tǒng)基礎(chǔ)上的）報告系統(tǒng)和決策支持系統(tǒng)。所以正是由交易處理系統(tǒng)、報告系統(tǒng)及決策支持系統(tǒng)組成的這一管理信息系統(tǒng)將管理各層面和功能區(qū)整合在一起。為進一步演示這些子系統(tǒng)是怎樣整合在一起的，下表重現(xiàn)

76、了管理信息系統(tǒng)的定義。它清楚地表明了管理信息系統(tǒng)各組成部分與定義框架中各要素的關(guān)系。 </p><p>　　表10.1 信息管理系統(tǒng)定義</p><p><b>　　管理信息系統(tǒng)是 </b></p><p>　　.用戶/計算機集成系統(tǒng) .計算機，信息交流，模型，人</p><p>　　.提供信息

77、 .系統(tǒng)輸出</p><p>　　.幫助決策 .管理信息系統(tǒng)，決策支持系統(tǒng)</p><p>　　.企業(yè)內(nèi)部 .信息系統(tǒng)框架</p><p><b>　　系統(tǒng)使用</b></p><p>　　.計算機硬件和軟件

78、 .計算機系統(tǒng)</p><p>　　.操作說明 .書，手冊，人</p><p>　　.分析模型 .運籌學(xué)</p><p>　　.數(shù)據(jù)庫. 計算機，信息交流，人，模型</p><p>　　開發(fā)一項行政人員,管理人員和專業(yè)人員報酬方案在許多方

79、面類似于開發(fā)任一其他類型雇員的報酬方案.兩種報酬方案的基本目的相同,因為都是吸引優(yōu)秀雇員并使他們保持對企業(yè)的奉獻精神.此外,評價職位的基本方法如職位歸類,排序或要素計點法,如同適用于生產(chǎn)性和文員性職位一樣,也適用于管理職位和專業(yè)職位.</p><p>　　但對于管理職務(wù)和專業(yè)職務(wù)評價只是部分地回答了如何為這些雇員付酬.這些職務(wù)不同于生產(chǎn)性和文員性職務(wù),它們更傾向于強調(diào)像判斷問題,解決問題的能力這樣的非量化因素.企

80、業(yè)傾向于根據(jù)管理人員和專業(yè)技術(shù)人員的能力,即依據(jù)他們的績效和能力而不是在諸如工作環(huán)境這樣的靜態(tài)的職務(wù)要求的基礎(chǔ)上來確定起薪水.因此,為管理人員和專業(yè)人員制定報酬計劃相對比較復(fù)雜,但職務(wù)評價仍很重要,它通常在決定非薪水報酬,如紅利,獎金和福利等方面起輔助作用.</p><p>　　高級管理人員的報酬:在管理人員的報酬方案中有五個要素:薪金,福利,短期獎金,長期獎金和特別津貼.</p><p>

81、;　　付給管理人員的薪水通常根據(jù)個人工作對組織的價值和個人履行職責(zé)的表現(xiàn)來確定.與其他職位一樣,個人工作的價值總是通過工作分析和薪水調(diào)查以及相應(yīng)的薪金水平微調(diào)來確定.</p><p>　　薪水是管理人員報酬的基礎(chǔ):其他四個要素都是以它為基礎(chǔ)的.福利,獎金及特別津貼一般都按管理人員的基本收入的一定比例來支付.</p><p>　　由于在高級管理人員報酬決定因素問題上人們爭論不休,因此,在高級

82、管理人員報酬是否高問題上也存在爭論.對于等級較底的管理人（如一線主管）,則不存在這樣的爭論.基層主管平均薪水通常比其下屬工人的最高工資搞出10%-25%.許多雇員甚至為基層主管的規(guī)定加班時間支付報酬,盡管公平勞動標(biāo)準(zhǔn)法并不要求他們這樣做.</p><p>　　只要在高層管理人員中才存在報酬是否過高的問題.傳統(tǒng)的觀點是高層管理人的薪水水平與企業(yè)達到的規(guī)模緊密聯(lián)系.但兩位專家通過研究關(guān)于美國148位報酬最高的管理人員

83、的觀點得出結(jié)論:”高層管理人員的職責(zé)高低(用總資產(chǎn),總銷售額,公司股份總數(shù),股份總價值和公司利潤總額來衡量)并不是決定高層管理人員報酬水平的重要因素.”相反,這些專家說,高層管理人員的工資主要由他們所工作的行業(yè)和公司的權(quán)利機構(gòu)來決定的.因為作為企業(yè)懂事會成員的高級管理人員能在很大程度上影響他們的收入高低.</p><p>　　但相反的證據(jù)也存在.如在一研究中,調(diào)查人員發(fā)現(xiàn), 對129家公司總裁現(xiàn)金收入總額的統(tǒng)計分

84、析表明他們由于職責(zé)和績效而得到報酬收入.這位調(diào)查人員發(fā)現(xiàn)四個影響報酬的因素---公司規(guī)模,盈效率,雇員數(shù)量和經(jīng)驗---解釋了83%的工資差異.因此看來在制造企業(yè)中高級管理人員的現(xiàn)金收入總額是按理性的,可接受懂得和持久的原則來指定的.</p><p>　　在任何情況下,股東能動作用正與股東代表大會的改革及其他改革措施緊密結(jié)合,加強公司對高級管理人員付酬的限制.例如,1992年,證券和交易委員會表決贊成有關(guān)管理人員報

85、酬公開的最終準(zhǔn)則.如果主要管理人員的報酬(薪水和紅利)超出100,000美元,他們和其他管理人員的收入就得公布于眾.對于銀行家,1991奶奶來年聯(lián)邦存款保險法中禁止過高報酬.由此產(chǎn)生達到的懂得結(jié)果是懂事會審查和決定管理人員的報酬時必須負(fù)責(zé).一位專家說,這包括確定對管理人員職務(wù)的關(guān)鍵績效要求,評估企業(yè)目前的報酬適宜性,進行績效報酬的調(diào)查以及檢查股東是否接受懂事會提出的付酬建議.</p><p>　　如今普遍趨向于減

86、底管理人員基本薪金的相對重要性及提高短期和長期獎金的重要性.這里存在的主要問題是為每一種類型達到的懂得獎金確定適應(yīng)懂得績效標(biāo)準(zhǔn),然后絕地感如何將其與報酬掛鉤.衡量股東價值的典型的短期標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括收入增長及營業(yè)利潤率,長期股東衡量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括超過某一預(yù)定的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的投資收益率.</p><p>　　專業(yè)人員懂得報酬:對象工程師和科學(xué)家這樣的非管理人員的付酬有一些獨特問題.各種分析性工作主要強調(diào)他們的創(chuàng)造能力和解決問題的能力,報

87、酬因素不易于進行比較和測量.此外,專業(yè)人員對企業(yè)的經(jīng)濟影響通常來說與個人實際努力并無直接懂得聯(lián)系.例如:工程師的發(fā)明成功與否取決于許多的因素,如產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)和銷售.</p><p>　　我們在前面所解釋的職務(wù)評價方法可以用于專業(yè)職務(wù)的評價.報酬決定因素傾向于解決問題的能力,創(chuàng)造性,職務(wù)范圍,技術(shù)知識和專門的技術(shù).盡管職務(wù)級別劃分法好象使用得最廣泛,但也用要素計分法和要素比較法.先要編好一系列的職務(wù)級別說明書,然后把

88、各職務(wù)分別劃入最合適其定義的職務(wù)級別.</p><p>　　然而,實際上,傳統(tǒng)的職務(wù)評價方法很少用于專業(yè)職務(wù),因為’她無論如何也不能夠確定有針對性地區(qū)分專業(yè)工作價值達到的因素和因素等級.”一位專家解釋說:”知識和應(yīng)用知識的技巧是很難量化和測量的.”</p><p>　　結(jié)果,大多數(shù)雇主使用市場的定價法來評價專業(yè)職務(wù).他們在市場中竭盡所能確定專業(yè)職位懂得報酬水平,由此建立基準(zhǔn)職務(wù)的價值體系.

89、然后,建立這些基準(zhǔn)職務(wù)和雇主的其他專業(yè)職務(wù)的薪水結(jié)構(gòu).具體來說,每個專業(yè)領(lǐng)域(如機械工程或電氣工程)通常只有4到6 個等級,每個等級要求有變化幅度較大的薪水系列.這種方法有助于確保雇主在吸引具有各種水平才能的專業(yè)人員時保持的競爭實力,尤其是在這些人才實際上在世界各地都能得到雇用的情況下。</p><p>　　為了達到各自負(fù)責(zé)的目標(biāo)，管理者必須擔(dān)當(dāng)某些角色。此外，如果管理者要充分地履行其管理職能，他們就必須具備特定

90、的管理技能。</p><p>　　管理的角：Henry Mintzberg對主管者行為的研究使他得出管理者必須擔(dān)當(dāng)種種角色幾結(jié)論。接色是指某一特定職位上應(yīng)進行的一組預(yù)期行為。Mintzberg所論述的角色可以分成三大類：人際關(guān)系接色、信息接色和決策角色。Mintzberg認(rèn)為這三種角色在各級管理層都是很常見的，它們?yōu)閷徱暪芾砺毮芴峁┝艘环N有趣的視角。</p><p>　　人際關(guān)系角色是由于

91、管理者必須與許多團體和個人互相聯(lián)系這一事實而產(chǎn)生的。三種人際關(guān)系角色是掛名領(lǐng)導(dǎo)（名譽領(lǐng)導(dǎo)）、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和聯(lián)絡(luò)人。掛名領(lǐng)導(dǎo)指儀式性的職責(zé)，例如為由本公司發(fā)起的少年棒球協(xié)會比賽投出第一個投球。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)角色只管理者為激勵下屬努力達到本公司目標(biāo)而進行的工作。聯(lián)絡(luò)角色是由于領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者要與本組織內(nèi)外的各種團體進行相互聯(lián)系而產(chǎn)生的。</p><p>　　信息角色之所以存在是因為管理者是組織內(nèi)部重要的信息渠道。管理這花費許多時間收集并傳遞信息

92、。三大信息角色是信息神經(jīng)中樞、傳遞者和發(fā)言人。神經(jīng)中樞角色意味著在工作單位管理者是信息的主要接受者。信息傳遞角色指把對下級來說重要的、下級履行其職責(zé)所必須的信息傳達給下級。管理者與組織以外的各方進行聯(lián)系時就是實施發(fā)言人角色，在當(dāng)?shù)孛司銟凡堪l(fā)表演說就是其中一例。</p><p>　　決策角色是指管理層的決策過程。這一范疇內(nèi)的四大管理角色是企業(yè)家</p><p>　　障礙排除者‘資源的配置者

93、以及談判者。當(dāng)一個管理者為改進部門或工作單位而啟動計劃時，他就承擔(dān)起了企業(yè)家的角色。當(dāng)出現(xiàn)諸如給某主要客戶的貨物丟失之類的問題時，管理者必須充當(dāng)障礙排除者角色。為如何分配單位的資金、時間、材料以及其他資源而作出決策被稱作資源配置的責(zé)任。最后，談判者角色是指管理者必須在與其他人（例如供貨商、客戶和政府）的交往中代表單位的利益。</p><p>　　有效管理所需要的技能</p><p>　　管

94、理者需要具有那些管理技能？著名權(quán)威 Robert L.Katz 提出了各種管理工作中必須的三種特定技能。Katz提出的管理技能與管理工作中的技術(shù)、人際關(guān)系及構(gòu)想等因素有關(guān)。</p><p>　　技術(shù)技能指利用各種工具與方法來完成對某項工作任務(wù)進行特定的管理的能力。能說明技能的重要性的一個典型實例就是工廠的主管，他必須熟悉機器是如何運轉(zhuǎn)的，以便能夠糾正車間可能出現(xiàn)的問題。</p><p>　

95、　人際關(guān)系技能指為達到某些目標(biāo)而領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、激勵與人溝通的能力。在與上級和單位以外的人（例如賣主、客戶和公眾）的相互聯(lián)系中，人際關(guān)系技能同樣重要，同時其重要性也體現(xiàn)在組織內(nèi)部所有層次中。目前這種技能的適應(yīng)性發(fā)展就是在今天勞動力種族多樣化的工作所履行職責(zé)所必須的文化差異意識。</p><p>　　全局構(gòu)想技能指理解并協(xié)助組織全部的目標(biāo)與活動的能力。這種對整個組織進行分析的能力對高層管理人員特別重要，也是制定組織計劃中的一