外文翻譯--生態(tài)景觀設(shè)計的原則

1、<p>　　生態(tài)景觀設(shè)計的原則 </p><p>　　Principles of Ecological Landscape Design </p><p>　　學 部（院）： 建筑與藝術(shù)學院</p><p>　　專業(yè)：藝術(shù)設(shè)計（環(huán)境藝術(shù)設(shè)計）</p><p>　　學 生 姓 名： </p>&l

2、t;p>　　學 號： 指 導(dǎo) 教 師： </p><p>　　完 成 日 期： </p><p>　　Complex Creations:</p><p>　　Designing and Managing Ecosystems</p><p>　　A dragon?y ?its

3、 over the sun-mirrored surface of a pond, snapping at hatching mosquitoes before com- ing to rest on an overhanging rush. This is an ecosystem: animals, plants, and their physical environ- ment linked together in the exc

4、hange of energy and materials. If this were our pond, our ecosystem, we would have it all: a beautiful landscape feature, enlivened by creatures we never had to care for, and hassle-free pest control.</p><p>

5、;　　Ecosystems like this pond do quiet, crucial work, keeping alive the biosphere of which we are a part. Where such a natural pond, or a forest or ?oodplain, exists, it behooves us to protect it. Where one has been degra

6、ded, we would be well served to restore it (see chap. 10). But where such ecosystems have been plowed under or paved over, we can endeavor to replace them by ?lling the built environment not just with lawns and plazas an

7、d fountains but withecosystems.</p><p>　　An ecosystem consists of all of the living organisms in an area along with their physical environ- ment, and its properties arise from the interactions between these

8、components. An ocean bay is an ecosystem, as is an alpine meadow or a green roof. Perhaps because of their clear boundaries, lakes and streams were important objects of study in the development of ecosystem ecology. Wher

9、e bound- aries are less distinct, the limits ofan ecosystem can be de?ned,even arbitrarily,based on the question a</p><p>　　Designed landscapes already bring together a manipulated physical environment and l

10、iving or- ganisms. They do not necessarily function as natural ecosystems do, however. They are disconnect- ed, too often wasteful and demanding, or else they simply fail to thrive. When we succeed in creat- ing integrat

11、ed ecosystems, the results can be remarkable. Life can spring forth, almost unbidden. Wastes can be transformed into resources. The various members of a living community can reach a tentative balan</p><p>　　

12、T. Beck, Principles of Ecological Landscape Design, DOI 10.5822/978-1-61091-199-3_4, © 2013 Travis Beck</p><p>　　THE ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT</p><p>　　The idea that plants and animals and their en

13、vironment form an integrated whole is at the root of the discipline of ecology, although it took decades to articulate in its modern form. In 1887, in an address to the Peoria Scienti?c Association, Stephen Forbes descri

14、bed the lake as “a microcosm.” In order for a scientist to understand any one species, he argued,</p><p>　　He must evidently study also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the various co

15、nditions upon which these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions affecting their prosperity; and by the time he has studied all these suf?cientl

16、y he will ?nd that hehas runthroughthe wholecomplicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element. (</p><p>　　The term microcos

17、m did not enter into wider ecological use. However, the idea of many organisms forming a larger entity gained expression in the turn-of-the-century concept of the climax commu- nity (see chap. 2). This concept was single

18、d out by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in a 1935 article provocatively titled “The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms.” The abuse to which he referred was the insistence of Clements and other ecologists

19、on applying the term organism to the climax</p><p>　　Tansley preferred to think in terms of integrated systems. His notion of systems was borrowed from the physical sciences. “These ecosystems, as we may cal

20、l them,” he wrote, “are of the most various kinds and sizes. They form one category of the multitudinous physical systems of the universe, which range from the universe as a whole down to the atom” (Tansley 1935: 299). A

21、n essential part of Tansley’s description of the ecosystem is that he included in it not only all of the plants and animals an</p><p>　　CREATE ECOSYSTEMS</p><p>　　Built landscapes also have phys

22、ical and biological components: crudely, in industry terms, hardscape and softscape. Too often, these components are far from integrated. The hardscape is set in response to programmatic needs, and plants are tucked into

23、 the remaining spaces. If the physical environment is not right for the biological components, then it is altered, by providing irrigation, for instance (see chap.1).</p><p>　　Consider a typical landscape po

24、nd. An estate owner might pay a contractor to clear an area, ex- cavate a hole, line it, ?ll it full of water from a well, and trim the whole setup neatly with rocks or lawn and perhaps a few aquatic plants on a planting

25、 shelf. As water evaporates from the unshaded pond, the well pump kicks in and tops off the pond. Even suburban homeowners want their own ponds and waterfalls, full of municipal water and lined with dwarf conifers or Jap

26、anese iris (Irisensata) sitti</p><p>　　By contrast, a pond that is conceived of as an ecosystem fuses physical and biological elements into a whole that integrates with, rather than sits apart from, the proc

27、esses of the surrounding environ- ment. Landscape architects Andropogon Associates createdsuch a pond on a property in Greenwich, Connecticut. Naturally, throughout New England’s forests, in the spring small depressions

28、in the land- scape ?ll with water, which in?ltrates as groundwater levels drop in the summer. These vernal pools</p><p>　　water levels drop to the level of the liner, the wetted margins dry, mimicking the cy

29、cle of vernal pools. If water levels drop further, the sump pump and waterfall can make up the difference from the recharged groundwater. Because the pond is in the forest, however, evaporation and the</p><p&g

30、t;　　needformakeupwaterareminimal.</p><p>　　This forested pond is now a hub of life and the center of the entire landscape. Rather than create a sterile water feature of dissociated elements, Andropogon creat

31、ed an ecosystem, with natural physical cycles and plants and animals adapted to them.</p><p>　　ECOSYSTEMS ARE COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS</p><p>　　Ecologists’ understanding of the multitudinous sys

32、tems of the universe has evolved since Tansley wrote his critique of Clements in 1935. Most recently, ecosystems have been regarded as complex adap- tive systems. Simon Levin (1998, 1999), a biologist at Princeton, is a

33、chief proponent of this view. In complex adaptive systems, as explained by Levin, heterogeneous individual agents interact locally to create larger patterns, and the outcome of those local interactions affects the furthe

34、r developm</p><p>　　Figure 4.1 Schematic design of the Andropogon-designed pond ecosystem. During normal dry weather conditions (a) a liner and groundwater pump maintain a permanent water level. During norma

35、l wet season conditions (b) over?ow enters peripheral seasonal wetlands and recharges groundwater. (Drawing by Colin Franklin.)</p><p>　　system with properties of its own. If a plant that produces more bioma

36、ss competitively excludes others along the pond’s margins, then the accumulation of detritus in the pond, the populations of bottom feeders,and other ecosystemproperties will all be affected.</p><p>　　Levin

37、further described four characteristics of complex adaptive systems. They are diverse, ag- gregated, nonlinear, and connected by ?ows. Ecosystems include individual organisms with diverse characteristics. Through their in

38、teractions, the individual agents in an ecosystem become grouped into larger organizational entities. For example, populations are groups of interacting individuals of the same species (see chap. 2). The most accurate wa

39、y to view aggregation is through the composition of a </p><p>　　LET CONSTRUCTED ECOSYSTEMS SELF-DESIGN</p><p>　　If ecosystems are complex adaptive systems that develop from the interaction of th

40、eir components and the events of history, then successful ecosystems are unlikely to spring forth from our heads fully formedbut should emerge instead through a process wemightcall self-design.</p><p>　　Figu

41、re 4.2 Turing patterns, like this one, are an example of a complex system formed from local interactions. In this case, each pixel’s color is determined by the color of the surrounding pixels according to a computer algo

42、rithm. Starting from a random initial state, the pattern continues to evolve. (Image by Jonathan McCabe, under Creative Commons 2.0 Generic License.)</p><p>　　Bill Mitsch and his colleagues explored self-des

43、ign at the Wilma H. Schiermeier Olentangy River Wetland Research Park in Columbus, Ohio (Mitsch etal. 1998).They intentionally left one of two basins in their newly created experimental oxbow unvegetated. They knew that

44、wind, water, and animals would bring in new plants soon enough, and they wanted to see how closely the unplanted wetland would resemble the one they planted. Within 3 years, the two wetlands were remarkably similar in te

45、rms of veget</p><p>　　The success of the two basins as self-designed ecosystems is indicated by the Olentangy River Wetland’s designation under the Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance

46、.</p><p>　　Figure 4.3 Aerial view of the two Olentangy River Wetlands. (Courtesy of William J. Mitsch, Wilma H. Schiermeier Olentangy River Wetland Research Park.)</p><p>　　ECOSYSTEMS ARE ORGANI

47、ZED IN TROPHIC LEVELS</p><p>　　As complex adaptive systems, ecosystems are animated by the interactions between their constituent parts and the ?ows that connect them. In the 1940s a young American ecologist

48、, Raymond Lindeman, suggested a way of analyzing ecosystems in terms of energy ?ow. As with Forbes before him, Linde- man’s focus was on lakes. After 5 years of ?eld work on the small Cedar Bog Lake near the University o

49、f Minnesota, Lindeman signed up for a postdoctoral year at Yale University with G. Evelyn Hutchinson (wh</p><p>　　Lindeman’s focus was on the trophic, or “energy-availing,” relationships within an ecosystem.

50、 Bor- rowing from German limnologist August Thienemann, he abstracted the familiar food webs that natural- ists and ecologists had produced for lakes and other systems into trophic levels: Producers are organ- isms such

51、as plants and phytoplankton that obtain their energy from the sun, consumers are organisms such as zooplankton and ?sh that obtain their energy from eating producers, and decomposers are </p><p>　　certain am

52、ount of biological reality. He also created the problem of how to classify organisms that eat both producers and consumers. There can be several levels of consumers in an ecosystem, although earlier ecologists had noted

53、that rarely are there more than ?ve trophic levels in total. Lindeman’s analysis explained this phenomenon.</p><p>　　Unlike the chemical elements, which can cycle inde?nitely in an ecosystem (see chap. 6), e

54、nergy ?ows through an ecosystem in one direction only: from the sun to producers to consumers to second- ary consumers to decomposers. At each transfer of energy between trophic levels, Lindeman noted, a certain amount i

55、s lost (?g. 4.4). Primary consumers such as browsing snails expend a certain amount of energy just living and ?nding producers to eat. Some of them die before they are eaten by benthic preda</p><p>　　Figure

56、4.4 Lindeman’s diagram of the food web and different trophic levels in a generalized lake. Energy and nutrients enter the system from the outside. These are captured and transformed by both microscopic and macroscopic pr

57、oducers (phytoplankters and pondweeds, ?1). Primary consumers (zooplankters and browsers,</p><p>　　?2)eattheproducersandinturnare eatenbysecondary consumers(planktonpredators andbenthic predators, ?3). Tert

58、iaryconsumers (plankton predators and benthic predators, ?4) are at the top of the</p><p>　　foodchain.All the organic matter in the systemultimately cycles through the bacterial decomposers in the ooze at<

59、;/p><p>　　the bottom of the lake, which in turn feeds zooplankters and browsers. (From Lindeman, R. L. Copyright ©1942, Ecological Society of America. The trophic–dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23:399–

60、417. With permission from the Ecological Societyof America.)</p><p>　　as shells that are dif?cult to digest and whose energy is not passed along. The available energy in each trophic level, then, is less tha

61、n that in the preceding level. Lindeman expressed this relationship using the productivity symbollambda (?):</p><p>　　0 > ?1</p><p><b>　　> ?2</b></p><p>　　. .

62、. > ?n.</p><p>　　As we move to higher and higher trophic levels, less and less energy is available. Because higher- order consumers also need ever-greater levels of energy to seek out their prey, at some

63、point in</p><p>　　every ecosystem, there is no longer suf?cient energy to support another trophic level.</p><p>　　Lindeman calculated the productivity and ef?ciency of energy transfer between tr

64、ophic levels for several lakes for which he had data and drew some preliminary conclusions. This pre?gured the more precise modeling of ecosystems that was to come in the next phase of ecosystem ecology.</p><p

65、>　　INTEGRATE PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS, AND DECOMPOSERS</p><p>　　All ecosystems are governed by the rules of energy ?ow that Lindeman outlined. As we manage existing ecosystems and strive to create functioning

66、 ecosystems of our own, we need to be sure the different trophic levels are represented in their proper ratios. If a level is missing or there are too few organisms at that level, energy, in the form of organic matter, w

67、ill accumulate as waste, or undesirable organisms may take advantage of the bounty. If there are too many levels or too many organisms, </p><p>　　At El Monte Sagrado, an ecologically minded luxury resort in

68、Taos, New Mexico, a linked series of carefully designed aquatic ecosystems provide wastewater treatment and an essential part of the landscape. The systems’ ability to ?lter water depends on the integration of different

69、trophic levels. At the heart of the wastewater ?ltration process is a Living Machine. Living Machines were originally developed by ecological designer John Todd in the 1970s and 1980s (Todd and Todd 1993). They have sin&

70、lt;/p><p>　　After disinfection and ?nal polishing in an outdoor wetland, the now clear water enters indoor dis- play ponds and another aquatic ecosystem. Here producers include a variety of tropical plants, phy

71、to- plankton, and algae, and ?sh play the role of consumers. Resort guests also serve as consumers when they enjoy starfruit (Averrhoa carambola) and kumquat from the plants that are irrigated by the treated wastewater.

72、By including all the trophic levels, this systemfully uses the energy and nutrient</p><p>　　in the wastewater generated by resort guests, resulting in clear water and valuable end products rather than murky

73、graywater and sewage sludge. On top of this, thanks to the ef?cient reuse of water that the aquatic ecosystems allow and their centrality to the overall design of the resort, even in the high desert El Monte Sagrado has

74、a lush ambience that invites guests to relax and feel themselves a part of living processes (?g. 4.5).</p><p>　　Figure 4.5 Treated water from the Living Machine enters an indoor display pond at El Monte Sagr

75、ado resort in Taos, New Mexico. (Photo courtesy of Worrell Water Technologies.)</p><p>　　NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS HELP ECOSYSTEMS MAINTAIN STABILITY</p><p>　　One of the aspects of ecosystems that

76、 fascinated the early ecologists who studied them was that ecosystems can demonstrate, in Arthur Tansley’s words, a “relatively stable dynamic equilibrium.” Fifteen years after the publication of Lindeman’s article on tr

77、ophic dynamics, Howard Odum (1957) amassed large amounts of data into a much more exact picture of the surging dynamics behind such apparent stability.</p><p>　　The ecosystem Odum studied was the headwaters

78、 of Silver Springs, Florida. Since the nineteenth century Silver Springs has been a tourist attraction to which visitors ?ock to admire the crystal clear wa- ter, schools of ?sh, and waving freshwater eelgrass (Sagittari

79、a subulata) (?g. 4.6). The glass-bottomed boat was invented at Silver Springs, in fact, and to this day one can take a boat ride around the three quarter miles ofwateryattractions with folksy names such as Fish Reception

80、 Hall. Silver S</p><p>　　Figure 4.6 Research divers in main boil of Silver Springs hold herbivorous turtles amid algae-covered eelgrass. (From Odum, H. T. Copyright ©1957, Ecological Society of America.

81、 Trophic structure and productivity of Silver Springs, Florida. Ecological Monographs 27:55–112. With permission from the Ecological Society of America.)</p><p>　　an excellent natural laboratory for Odum bec

82、ause of the constancy of its ?ow, temperature, and chemi- cal properties. Odum noted that the springs’ “hydrographic climate” was at a steady state and that a long-standing climax community had resulted.</p><p

83、>　　Odum and his team of researchers went to remarkable lengths to capture data on every aspect of the Silver Springs ecosystem. Bending over the bow of a motoring boat, they measured the tempera- ture changes in water

84、 as it ?owed out of the main boil and downstream. By harvesting and weighing samples of eelgrass and the algae that covered it, they determined the biomass of these producers. They grew snails in cages on the bottom of t

85、he stream and measured their increase in weight. They snuck up on </p><p>　　Cleverly, Odum and his team were able to measure the overall metabolism of the community by</p><p>　　comparing oxygen

86、levels in the water during the day and at night. The regular ?ow of Silver Springs carried all the “waste products” of the ecosystem past the measuring station three quarters of a mile downstream from the boil. At night

87、all the organisms in the community respired, lowering oxygen levels to a point that re?ected their cumulative metabolism. During the day, respiration continued, but the photosynthetic producers also gave off oxygen. The

88、difference between daytime and nighttime ox</p><p>　　Combining all these measurements, Odum was able to create a detailed description of the ?ow of energyin the entire ecosystem. This analysis also allowed h

89、im to explain how Silver Springs maintained itself in a seemingly unchanging state. Based on the ratio of community productivity to standing bio- mass, Odum estimated that the entire community turned over (died and was r

90、eplaced) eight times per year. Clearly, smaller organisms turned over many times more than the average and larger longer-lived</p><p>　　第 4 章 復(fù)雜的作品: </p><p>　　生態(tài)景觀設(shè)計的原則 </p><p>　　Pr

91、inciples of Ecological Landscape Design </p><p>　　設(shè)計和管理生態(tài)系統(tǒng) 一只蜻蜓掠過波光粼粼的池塘表面,抓住孵化后的蚊子之前在一個懸臂沖旁休</p><p>　　息。這是一個生態(tài)系統(tǒng):動物、植物、和他們的物理環(huán)境,聯(lián)系在一起的能量和物質(zhì)</p><p>　　的交換。如果這是我們的池塘,我們的生態(tài)系統(tǒng),我們將擁有一切:

92、一個美麗的景觀特 色,我們從來沒有理睬過的活躍的生物群和一站式服務(wù)的害蟲控制。 </p><p>　　池塘生態(tài)系統(tǒng)是安靜且至關(guān)重要的工作,是保持生物圈活躍的一部分。這樣的自 然池塘,森林或泛濫平原是存在的,我們應(yīng)該保護它。即使其中一個已經(jīng)退化,我們依 然會提供良好的服務(wù)來恢復(fù)它(參見第十章)。雖然這樣的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)被擊潰或鋪 平了,但我們可以努力取代他們填充過的建筑環(huán)境，因為他們同時可以與草坪廣場和 噴泉形成生態(tài)

93、系統(tǒng)。 </p><p>　　一個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)包含所有的生物體連同他們的物理環(huán)境在一個區(qū)域,及其屬性來 自于這些組件之間的交互。一個海洋灣是一個生態(tài)系統(tǒng),也可以是一個高山草甸或綠 色屋頂。也許因為他們清晰的界限,湖泊和溪流成為重要的研究對象發(fā)展的生態(tài)系 統(tǒng)。白羊座是不明顯的界定,受限的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)可以被定義,甚至任意地,基于生態(tài)學家 提出的問題是學者或設(shè)計師的界限。 </p><p>　　景觀設(shè)計

94、包括召集一個操縱物理環(huán)境和生物體群組。他們的功能不一定用來衡 量自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。生態(tài)斷裂的鏈條常常浪費和稍顯吃力,否則他們根本無法茁壯成 長。當我們成功地創(chuàng)造出荷蘭國際集團集成生態(tài)系統(tǒng),結(jié)果是顯著的。生命是自發(fā)的, 幾乎未受邀請的。廢品可以轉(zhuǎn)化為資源。各類生物體的成員可以達到一個暫時的平 衡。建筑環(huán)境可以凈化水,保護我們免受洪水的襲擊和加強我們的幸福感。 </p><p>　　貝克 生態(tài)景觀設(shè)計的原則。 </

95、p><p>　　標識符 10.5822 / 978 - 1 - 61091 - 199 - 3 _4,©2013 特拉維斯貝克 </p><p>　　生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的概念 植物，動物和他們的環(huán)境形成一個整體的想法，根源是生態(tài)學的學科,雖然花了</p><p>　　近幾十年的現(xiàn)代形式進行表達。1887 年,在伊利諾伊州皮奧里亞科學協(xié)會發(fā)表講話</p>&

96、lt;p>　　時,斯蒂芬·福布斯形容湖是微觀世界的一個縮影?！盀榱俗尶茖W家了解每一個物種, 他說道, </p><p>　　很顯然，他必須研究它所依賴的物種的存在,以及這些依賴的各種客觀條件。他 必須同樣研究各物種競爭,即便整個大系統(tǒng)的環(huán)境時刻影響他們的繁榮;他研究結(jié)果 證明所有這些因素足夠使得機制貫穿整個地區(qū)的水生生物的復(fù)雜機制,動物和植物, 其中一些物種形式僅僅是單個元素。(福布斯 1887:

97、1887) </p><p>　　這個詞并沒有進入更廣泛的生態(tài)利用。然而, 在世紀之交許多有機體的概念形 成一個更大的實體的概念獲得了美軍陸軍的強烈推崇——思路(見 2 章)。這個概念</p><p>　　是由英國生態(tài)學家亞瑟坦斯利在 1935 年的一篇文章中指出的挑逗性論題，為“植被 概念和術(shù)語的使用和濫用?！八岬降臑E用是堅持克萊門茨和其他生態(tài)學家生物將 這一術(shù)語運用到頂極群落?！皼]有

98、必要理會疲憊的讀者,他寫道;“生物群落不像單 個動物或植物”(坦斯利 1935:1935)。然而,他并沒有提及,一個社區(qū)的發(fā)展過程是 非常不同于動物和植物的生命周期的。坦斯利說在最好的情況下, 植被可能會像一 個“類似生命體”,盡管不那么好，但卻可以集成作為人類社會或蜂房的蜜蜂。這對 被生物接受的類似生命體狀態(tài)可以區(qū)分坦斯利和其他科學家先前進行的生態(tài)批評， 反駁格里森純粹的純個人主義的觀點。有一定道理的頂極群落的綜合和自我調(diào)節(jié), 坦斯利