[雙語翻譯]社交媒體外文翻譯--應急管理中的社交媒體twitter作為向公眾傳播風險的工具（英文）

1、Social media in emergency management: Twitter as a tool for communicating risks to the publicPanos Panagiotopoulos a,?, Julie Barnett b, Alinaghi Ziaee Bigdeli c, Steven Sams da School of Business and Management, Queen M

2、ary University of London, Francis Bancroft Building, Mile End E1 4NS, United Kingdom b Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom c Aston Business School, Aston University,

3、 Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, United Kingdom d Department of Computer Science, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, United Kingdoma b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 21

4、December 2014Received in revised form 19 April 2016Accepted 10 June 2016Available online 1 July 2016One of the main challenges of emergency management lies in communicating risks to the public. On someoccasions, risk com

5、municators might seek to increase awareness over emerging risks, while on others the aimmight be to avoid escalation of public reactions. Social media accounts offer an opportunity to rapidly distributecritical informati

6、on and in doing so to mitigate the impact of emergencies by influencing public reactions. Thisarticle draws on theories of risk and emergency communication in order to consider the impact of Twitter as atool for communic

7、ating risks to the public. We analyse 10,020 Twitter messages posted by the official accountsof UK local government authorities (councils) in the context of two major emergencies: the heavy snow ofDecember 2010 and the r

8、iots of August 2011. Twitter was used in a variety of ways to communicate and manageassociated risks including messages to provide official updates, encourage protective behaviour, increase aware-ness and guide public at

9、tention to mitigating actions. We discuss the importance of social media as means ofincreasing confidence in emergency management institutions.© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.Keywords:Social mediaEmergency

10、managementSocial amplification of riskCrisis and emergency risk communicationmodelTechnological impact1. IntroductionWhen Hurricane Sandy hit the east coast of the United States in lateOctober 2012, the popular microblog

11、ging application Twitter wasextensively used as a hub of timely information provision to help peoplestay informed and safe. Public authorities such as the New York FireDepartment were able to provide essential support an

12、d even targetthe rescue of victims through the effective use of their Twitter account(CNN, 2012). This is only one of the highly visible cases where theimmediacy of Twitter has proven valuable in emergency communica-tion

13、; others include tsunamis, floods and man-made violent incidentslike terrorist attacks or food contamination (Al-Saggaf and Simmons,2014; Gaspar et al., 2016; Heverin and Zach, 2012; Oh et al., 2013).Twitter Alerts (2015

14、), the network's official warning system launchedin 2013, helps users receive official emergency alerts from registeredauthorities such as police forces, ambulance services, meteorologicaland environment agencies.As

15、a major technological innovation of recent years, social mediaapplications have reshaped the nature of digital information sharingand networking. As part of this, they have come to function as spaceswhere both officials

16、and citizens seek to interpret emergency situationsand intervene accordingly (e.g. Macias et al., 2009; Neubaum et al.,2014; Palen et al., 2010). The relevance of social media has becomeevident in different aspects of co

17、mmunication before, during and afteremergency events with Comfort et al. (2012, p. 547) noting thatchannels like Twitter and Facebook ‘are being rapidly integrated intodisaster environments and warrant systematic study o

18、f their viabilityin support of improved public response. Compared to previous workin information and knowledge management applications for emergencysupport (e.g. Dorasamy et al., 2013), social media have created muchmore

19、 open and ubiquitous information flows between authorities andthe public. This is one of the reasons why Turoff et al. (2013) morespecifically suggest that social media merit further attention with re-gard to their poten

20、tial to engage with the public during emergencies.This paper focuses on the role of social media in communicatingrisks to the public during emergency events. Management of risk tothe public is one of the major challenges

21、 in emergency communication.It involves diverse strategies in terms of gathering information, settingstandards and enforcing or suggesting particular behaviours to mitigaterisks (e.g. Lodge, 2009; Mileti, 1999; Sellnow a

22、nd Seeger, 2013). Riskcommunication requires providing timely and reliable information tosignal that authorities have the situation under control. Using this infor-mation, community members interpret emergency risks and

23、makeTechnological Forecasting Veil et al., 2011). Jung and Park(2014) map the dynamic evolution of risk communication networkswhere intermediary actors clearly act as stations of amplification interms of diffusing infor

24、mation and mitigating the impact of an outsideattack. Al-Saggaf and Simmons (2014) further show how amplificationon social media can even escalate from crisis incidents to issues of polit-ical accountability and blame.In

25、corporating a consideration of the deployment of social mediaaround risk and crisis communication by stakeholders and publics rep-resents a considerable research agenda. This would need to attend to,for example, how soci

26、al media enable organisations to communicatedirectly with citizens and the impact of doing so, the role of individualcitizens in communicating risk (perhaps requiring a more differentiatedpicture of individual stations o

27、f amplification), how traditional mediainteracts with social media, and, of particular interest to this paper,how particular features of social media platforms enable – or constrain– risk communication and how they might

28、 best be deployed at differentstages in the development and management of a crisis.There has been a great deal of work that focuses on the role of socialmedia and crisis communication more generally as noted in earlyrevi

29、ews of this area (Rains et al., 2014; Veil et al., 2011; Wendlinget al., 2013) and the role of microblogs in this has received sustainedattention with Twitter being highly influential and distinctive. Twitterstarted in 2

30、006 as a brief announcement service where users could fol-low others (with ‘following’ not being a reciprocal relationship).Twitter's conversational features were gradually established to supportuser interactions and

31、 the structuring of information (e.g. Marwick andBoyd, 2013). First, users are enabled to directly address other users orrefer to them in conversations using the symbol ‘@’ (e.g. @XXX). Second,users can ‘retweet’ or repr

32、oduce another user's message in its original ormodified form. Third, users can follow streams of updates through key-words which are thematically organised around the symbol ‘#’(hashtag), which is self-assigned to me

33、ssages by users themselves(e.g. #LondonRiots). In addition, tweets often contain media contentor hyperlinks to other material.Due to these features, Twitter has radically changed the way emer-gency information is sociall

34、y distributed. Without replacing traditionalmedia sources, Twitter has become a virtual space where many Internetusers turn to seek emergency details; tweets might even come fromusers from the epicentre of disasters such

35、 as earthquakes (Murthy,2013). During events that draw attention, tweets can be propagatedon the ad hoc networks of users and quickly reach outside previouslyestablished relationships (Marwick and Boyd, 2013). Network ef

36、fectsare facilitated by one-click actions like replies and retweets, or evolvearound unmediated conversations enabled by hashtags. As a result,large scale computational techniques applied on Twitter data can beuseful to

37、detect unexpected incidents and overview public reactionsor the mobilisation of emergency response networks (Burnap et al.,2013; Jung and Park, 2016).Despite warnings that such interactions might be simply about rapiddis

38、tribution of factual information (Helsloot and Groenendaal, 2013),the relevance of Twitter in emergency and risk communication hasbeen evident. For example, Twitter can be used for collective sense-making during civil un

39、rest incidents (Heverin and Zach, 2012), as awarning tool in natural disasters (Chatfield et al., 2013) or as means ofTable 1Crisis and emergency risk communication model (Reynolds and Seeger, 2005, p. 52).Emergencystage

40、s Communication aims and good practicePrecrisis ? Monitoring and recognition of emerging risks? Warnings regarding eminent threats and precautionarymessages? Changes in behaviour to reduce likelihood of harm? Development

41、 of recommendations by experts and firstrespondentsInitial event ? Reduce uncertainty and emotional turmoil? Establish official sources of information? Announce anticipated outcomes? Improve understanding of self-efficac

42、y and personal responseactivities (what to do and how to get more information)Maintenance ? Facilitate more accurate understanding of ongoing risk,background factors and issues? Support and cooperation with response and

43、recovery efforts? Feedback from the public and correction of anymisunderstandings/rumours? Ongoing uncertainty reduction, re-iteration of self-efficacy andpersonal response activities from the previous stageResolution ?

44、Inform about recovery and rebuilding efforts? Improve public understanding of new risks and risk avoidancebehaviours? Facilitate discussion and resolution of issues regardingresponsibility, blame and adequacy of response

45、? Promote the activities and capacities of emergencyorganisations to reinforce positive identity and imageEvaluation ? Assess responses and communication effectiveness? Document, formalise and communicate lessons learnt?