藥學(xué)英語第五版原文翻譯

1、Introduction to PhysiologyIntroduction Physiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing

2、 circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intr

3、icate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—ma

4、ny are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal wor

5、ks it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how par

6、ticular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our pr

7、esent physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal s

8、pecies, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the

9、effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with i

10、ts own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via speci

11、fic cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological sys

12、tems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculo

13、skeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain common characteri

14、stics. Firstly, they are bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activities. 生理學(xué)簡介 生理學(xué)簡介介紹 介紹生理學(xué)是研究生

15、物體功能的科學(xué)。它研究生物體如何進(jìn)行各種活動，如何飲食，如何運(yùn)動，如何適應(yīng)不斷改變的環(huán)境，如何繁殖后代。這門學(xué)科包羅萬象，涵蓋了生物體整個生命過程。生理學(xué)成功地解釋了生物體如何進(jìn)行日?；顒?，基于的觀點(diǎn)是生物體好比是結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜而靈巧的機(jī)器，其操作受物理和化學(xué)規(guī)律控制。盡管從生物學(xué)整個范疇看，生物體某些活動過程是相似的——如基因編碼的復(fù)制——但許多過程還是某些生物體群組特有的。鑒于此有必要將這門學(xué)科分成不同部分研究，如細(xì)菌生理學(xué)、植物生理學(xué)和

16、動物生理學(xué)。要研究一種動物如何活動，首先需要了解它的構(gòu)成。要充分了解一個生物體的生理學(xué)活動就必須掌握全面的解剖學(xué)知識。一個生物體的各部分起著什么作用可通過實(shí)驗(yàn)觀察得知。盡管我們對志愿者進(jìn)行了許多重要的生理調(diào)查，但是實(shí)驗(yàn)條件需要精確控制，所以我們當(dāng)前大多生理知識還是源于對其它動物如青蛙，兔子，貓和狗等的研究。當(dāng)我們明確大多數(shù)動物物種的特定生理過程存在共同之處時，相同的生理原理適用于人類也是合理的。通過這種方法，我們獲得了大量的知識，從而讓

17、我們對人類生理學(xué)有了更深入的了解，為我們有效治療許多疾病提供了一個堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。機(jī)體的基本組成物質(zhì)是細(xì)胞，細(xì)胞結(jié)合在一起形成組織。組織的基本類型有上皮組織，結(jié)締組織，神經(jīng)組織和肌組織，每類組織都有各自的特征。許多結(jié)締組織中細(xì)胞量相對較少，但是有大量的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)。相比而言，光滑的肌組織由大量密密麻麻的肌細(xì)胞通過特定的細(xì)胞連接組成。各種器官如腦，心臟，肺，小腸和肝等由不同種類的組織聚集而成。這些器官是不同生理系統(tǒng)的組成部分。心臟和血管組成心血

18、管系統(tǒng)；肺，器官，支氣管，胸壁和膈肌組成呼吸系統(tǒng)；骨骼和骨骼肌組成骨骼肌系統(tǒng)；大腦，脊髓，自主神經(jīng)和神經(jīng)中樞以及周圍軀體神經(jīng)組成神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)等等。細(xì)胞在形體和功能上差異很大，但是the tissues is carried to the lungs by the blood in the pulmonary artery where it is excreted in the expired air. The basic questions

19、 to be answered include the following: How is the air moved in and out of the lungs? How is the volume of air breathed adjusted to meet the requirements of the body? What limits the rate of oxygen uptake in the lungs?The

20、 digestive systemThe nutrients needed by the body are derived from the diet. Food is taken in by the mouth and broken down into its component parts by enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. The digestive products are the

21、n absorbed into the blood across the wall of the intestine and pass to the liver via the portal vein. The liver makes nutrients available to the tissues both for their growth and repair and for the production of energy.

22、In the case of the digestive system, key physiological questions are: How is food ingested? How is it broken down and digested? How are the individual nutrients absorbed? How is the food moved through the gut? How are th

23、e indigestible remains eliminated from the body?The kidneys and urinary tractThe chief function of the kidneys is to control the composition of the extracellular fluid. In the course of this process, they also eliminate

24、non-volatile waste products from the blood. To perform these functions, the kidneys produce urine of variable composition which is temporarily stored in the bladder before voiding. The key physiological questions in this

25、 case are: how do the kidneys regulate the composition of the blood? How do they eliminate toxic waste? How do they respond to stresses such as dehydration? What mechanisms allow the storage and elimination of the urine?

26、 The reproductive systemReproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. The gonads produce specialized sex cells known as gametes. At the core of sexual reproduction is the creation and fusion

27、 of the male and female gametes, the sperm and ova (eggs), with the result that the genetic characteristics of two separate individuals are mixed to produce offspring that differ genetically from their parents.The muscul

28、oskeletal systemThis consists of the bones of the skeleton, skeletal muscles, joints, and their associated tissues. Its primary function is to provide a means of movement, which is required for locomotion, for the mainte

29、nance of posture, and for breathing. It also provides physical support for the internal organs. Here the mechanism of muscle contraction is a central issue. The endocrine and nervous systems.The endocrine and nervous sys

30、temsThe activities of the different organ systems need to be coordinated and regulated so that they act together to meet the needs of the body. Two coordinating systems have evolved: the nervous system and the endocrine

31、機(jī)體進(jìn)行各項(xiàng)活動所需的能量最終來源于呼吸。這一過程包括食物（主要是糖類和脂肪）的氧化，釋放它們所含的能量。這一過程中，氧氣來自于肺中的空氣，經(jīng)由血液到達(dá)全身各組織。組織呼吸活動中釋放的二氧化碳由肺動脈中的血液運(yùn)送至肺，然后呼氣排出體外。需回答的基本問題如下：空氣是如何進(jìn)出肺的？呼吸的空氣量如何適應(yīng)機(jī)體所需？限制肺吸收氧氣頻率的因素是什么？消化系統(tǒng) 消化系統(tǒng)機(jī)體所需營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)來源于飲食。食物經(jīng)口腔進(jìn)入體內(nèi)，在胃腸道內(nèi)經(jīng)酶將其分解成小分子物質(zhì)

32、。這些消化物通過腸壁吸收入血液，通過門靜脈進(jìn)入肝臟。經(jīng)肝臟作用后，這些營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)能夠滿足組織生長修復(fù)及能量需求。在消化系統(tǒng)部分，重要的生理學(xué)問題是：食物是如何消化的？食物如何被個體分解消化？個體營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)如何吸收？食物如何在腸內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)的？未消化的殘留如何從體內(nèi)排出？泌尿系統(tǒng) 泌尿系統(tǒng)腎臟主要功能是控制細(xì)胞外液體的形成。在這一過程中，腎臟也會把不可揮發(fā)的廢物排出去。為行使這一功能，在排出之前，腎臟產(chǎn)生含有各種成分的尿液并將其暫時儲存在膀胱中。這

33、一部分主要的生理學(xué)問題是：腎臟如何調(diào)節(jié)血液中的成分？如何排出有毒廢物？如何應(yīng)對像脫水這樣的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)？以及尿液可以存儲和排出體外的機(jī)制是什么？生殖系統(tǒng) 生殖系統(tǒng)生殖是活生物體的一個基本特征。生殖腺產(chǎn)生專門的性細(xì)胞，被稱為配子。性生殖的核心是雌雄配子即精子和卵子的產(chǎn)生和融合，因此兩個獨(dú)立個體的基因特征融合而產(chǎn)生一個基因上與雙親不同的后代。 運(yùn)動系統(tǒng) 運(yùn)動系統(tǒng)這一系統(tǒng)由骨、骨骼肌、關(guān)節(jié)和它們的相關(guān)組織組成。其主要功能是提供運(yùn)動需要，維持姿勢及