會(huì)計(jì)學(xué)外文翻譯中國(guó)建筑行業(yè)的成本控制

1、<p><b>　　畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）</b></p><p><b>　　外文翻譯</b></p><p>　　題 目 中國(guó)建筑行業(yè)的成本控制 </p><p>　　專 業(yè) 會(huì)計(jì)學(xué) </p><p>　　班 級(jí) 級(jí)

2、班 </p><p>　　學(xué) 生 </p><p>　　指導(dǎo)教師 </p><p><b>　　XX大學(xué)</b></p><p><b>　　2011年</b></p>

3、<p>　　中國(guó)建筑行業(yè)的成本控制</p><p>　　文摘：中國(guó)已經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)離了計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)體制轉(zhuǎn)向市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)。中國(guó)的成本工程系統(tǒng)也被進(jìn)化以適應(yīng)這個(gè)社會(huì)主義經(jīng)濟(jì)系統(tǒng)。本文調(diào)查了近年來(lái)成本工程建設(shè)等部門發(fā)展的一些元素,并在此基礎(chǔ)上提供一些方法：</p><p>　　·成本控制過(guò)程的五個(gè)關(guān)鍵階段</p><p><b>　　·招標(biāo)投標(biāo)制度

4、</b></p><p><b>　　·工程量清單</b></p><p><b>　　·合同形式</b></p><p><b>　　·資格控制</b></p><p>　　一、成本控制過(guò)程的五個(gè)關(guān)鍵階段</p><

5、;p>　　由于沉重的資本投資、建設(shè)工期長(zhǎng),復(fù)雜的性質(zhì)建設(shè)項(xiàng)目成本控制過(guò)程一般包括5個(gè)主要階段的成本在壽命估算和評(píng)價(jià)的一個(gè)項(xiàng)目,每個(gè)使用不同的計(jì)算和估計(jì)方法。</p><p><b>　　可行性階段</b></p><p>　　這是一項(xiàng)重要的文件的決策對(duì)項(xiàng)目的可行性，它集下預(yù)算限制為一個(gè)項(xiàng)目,這通常不應(yīng)該被超過(guò)。</p><p>　　由于有

6、限的信息可在本可行性階段估計(jì)只會(huì)成本是一個(gè)粗糙的跡象,以歷史數(shù)據(jù)為基礎(chǔ)。</p><p><b>　　初步設(shè)計(jì)階段 </b></p><p>　　這估計(jì)是最新的估計(jì)在收到隨后可行性設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)發(fā)的信息。這份文件是十分必要的支持提交的初步設(shè)計(jì)的政府計(jì)劃部門批準(zhǔn)。</p><p>　　如果初步估計(jì)超過(guò)預(yù)算設(shè)定在可行性估計(jì)也額外的資金是尋求或者修改版的設(shè)

7、計(jì)必須減低估計(jì),在預(yù)算范圍之內(nèi)。</p><p><b>　　詳細(xì)設(shè)計(jì)階段</b></p><p>　　這估計(jì)是準(zhǔn)備的基礎(chǔ)上,根據(jù)一份分條列述的口水戰(zhàn)認(rèn)可的規(guī)則和測(cè)量方法,建成后的詳細(xì)說(shuō)明施工圖。一個(gè)溫柔的情況下,如果這估計(jì)是完成的開(kāi)發(fā)者就可以作為(四)標(biāo)底估計(jì),其中必須提交招標(biāo)局作為記錄。(四)標(biāo)底估計(jì),簽署及</p><p>　　上印著注冊(cè)

8、造價(jià)工程師的先決條件,也是性的問(wèn)題工程施工許可證。</p><p>　　如果收到的投標(biāo)金額偏離(四)標(biāo)底估計(jì)和偏差量超出規(guī)定的范圍的標(biāo)記方案招標(biāo)評(píng)估、嫩運(yùn)動(dòng)必須取消并經(jīng)行動(dòng)是真實(shí)的執(zhí)行。</p><p><b>　　施工階段</b></p><p>　　這些都是成本評(píng)估過(guò)程中進(jìn)行施工階段的為了確定工作執(zhí)行的價(jià)值。連續(xù)之間的時(shí)間間隔間隔不依賴合同

9、協(xié)議,該協(xié)議可以每月或在具有里程碑意義的基礎(chǔ)。臨時(shí)評(píng)估的基礎(chǔ)上還形成休學(xué)支付給金融資金流的承包商。</p><p>　　這些成本的評(píng)估是不估計(jì)的,而且他們的詳細(xì)測(cè)量但在整個(gè)施工期間連續(xù),并最終建立了決賽成本的作品。</p><p><b>　　崗位完成階段</b></p><p>　　這是一個(gè)正確的評(píng)估工作的最終成本的項(xiàng)目完成,考慮到所有相關(guān)的

10、圖紙和其他信息,這項(xiàng)工作而合理發(fā)生妥和成本的項(xiàng)目。</p><p>　　最后的陳述的帳戶將被簽名蓋章后注冊(cè)費(fèi)用工程師,將成為一個(gè)決定性的單據(jù)提交業(yè)主/開(kāi)發(fā)者政府項(xiàng)目完成的項(xiàng)目。它是唯一的證明文件項(xiàng)目的全部費(fèi)用。</p><p><b>　　二、招標(biāo)投標(biāo)制度</b></p><p>　　投標(biāo)已被最廣泛使用的方法為適銷對(duì)路的建設(shè)在中國(guó)開(kāi)展項(xiàng)目。自從

11、介紹了招標(biāo)投標(biāo)制度在1980年的、投標(biāo)投標(biāo)已被廣泛應(yīng)用于采購(gòu)咨詢服務(wù),網(wǎng)站研究、設(shè)計(jì)、建設(shè)監(jiān)理、材料供應(yīng)等等。</p><p>　　招標(biāo)投標(biāo)《中華人民共和國(guó)價(jià)格法》,這是上實(shí)現(xiàn)2000年1月1日起生效2000年是第一批法律在中國(guó)的法律規(guī)定為鞏固招標(biāo)招投標(biāo)制度。</p><p>　　依照本法規(guī)定的投標(biāo)系統(tǒng)具有一定的顯著特征。其中他們包括:</p><p>　　它需要強(qiáng)

12、制招標(biāo)·的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施、公用工程影響社會(huì)利益和社會(huì)安全;項(xiàng)目資助的全部或者部分由政府、項(xiàng)目由國(guó)際組織資助的,項(xiàng)目貸款或援助資助來(lái)自國(guó)外政府等。</p><p>　　它列出了那樣溫柔的練習(xí)可以分為開(kāi)放或選擇性招標(biāo)。</p><p>　　它要求投標(biāo)必須由招標(biāo)機(jī)構(gòu),擁有所必備的素質(zhì),除非組織招標(biāo)的要求能力應(yīng)付招標(biāo)的運(yùn)動(dòng)。</p><p>　　所有的練習(xí)都是溫柔的監(jiān)督

13、下發(fā)生的招標(biāo)局以保證招標(biāo)的規(guī)則和程序得到實(shí)施。</p><p>　　它要求投標(biāo)必須小心處理的公平,公開(kāi)、公正。這宣傳的邀請(qǐng)的方法是通過(guò)媒體公開(kāi)投標(biāo)的指定。這標(biāo)識(shí)和方案的評(píng)價(jià)來(lái)襲標(biāo)書必須清楚地把時(shí)間在招標(biāo)文件的投標(biāo)。在中國(guó),正常情況下需要招標(biāo)投標(biāo)者提交一份技術(shù)提交和定價(jià)工程量清單的提交(價(jià)格)另行規(guī)定。成功的投標(biāo)將被依標(biāo)示系統(tǒng)投標(biāo)評(píng)估委員會(huì)將技術(shù)得分和定價(jià)對(duì)比的結(jié)果之前個(gè)人投標(biāo)單位推薦競(jìng)標(biāo)接受,而不是僅僅選擇最低的

14、價(jià)格投標(biāo)。</p><p>　　它制定了要求一個(gè)溫柔的評(píng)估委員會(huì)。在這個(gè)委員會(huì)成員的三分之二是專家,其中一組專家保持政府的思路,而且超過(guò)其數(shù)目的代表從所者。這個(gè)委員會(huì)評(píng)估標(biāo)書根據(jù)項(xiàng)目推薦作為標(biāo)記方案,使溫柔的預(yù)期成功為業(yè)主的認(rèn)可。</p><p><b>　　三、工程量清單</b></p><p>　　在決定使用規(guī)范建設(shè)成本已經(jīng)非常有用的過(guò)去,

15、當(dāng)中國(guó)是經(jīng)營(yíng)作為一個(gè)中央計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)中尤其如此。然而這個(gè)體系所限制個(gè)人從投標(biāo)企業(yè)根據(jù)自身的資源優(yōu)勢(shì),例如使用一個(gè)或特殊類型的植物或熟練技工加速生產(chǎn)或減少招標(biāo)價(jià)格。作為一個(gè)結(jié)果,雙贏的其中軟件開(kāi)發(fā)者可以得到最優(yōu)惠的價(jià)格從最低的溫柔和一個(gè)高效的、能干的投標(biāo)者可以贏得一個(gè)溫柔的“以人為本”的是不能達(dá)到最低評(píng)標(biāo)價(jià),這是不符合本規(guī)則的國(guó)際球員競(jìng)爭(zhēng)激烈的市場(chǎng)。</p><p>　　2003年2月,該代碼對(duì)工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)對(duì)帳單(的

16、)數(shù)量的建設(shè)工程(GB50500 - 2003)是由公安部聯(lián)合出版的住房和城市——農(nóng)村發(fā)展(MOHURD)和一般國(guó)家質(zhì)量監(jiān)督檢驗(yàn)檢疫總局的中華人民共和國(guó)。一種新的2008年版,其中包括了額外的指導(dǎo)方針在其他合同管理實(shí)踐的變化等,索賠和爭(zhēng)議解決隨后在2008年7月發(fā)布的2003年效力,超越其使用的版本。</p><p>　　代碼制定了規(guī)則和程序規(guī)范工程量清單的制備的基礎(chǔ)上的圖紙、規(guī)格及其他要求和現(xiàn)場(chǎng)件。這個(gè)鏡子一般

17、海外的制作方法工程量清單的。</p><p>　　此清單包含部分的工作項(xiàng)目上,這些是通常會(huì)被定價(jià)'All-In-Rates’,這必須包括了所有的成本費(fèi)用、材料、植物、勞動(dòng)管理、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)加上利潤(rùn)和稅金等。</p><p>　　招標(biāo)文件的代碼要求為所有的大、中型大小的建設(shè)項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行資助的全部或者部分由政府是基于票據(jù)的根據(jù)大量準(zhǔn)備這份文件。</p><p>　　建設(shè)工程

18、采用工程量清單的基礎(chǔ)上獲得投標(biāo)不tofollow代碼在制備、投標(biāo)價(jià)格pre-tender估計(jì),確定和調(diào)整的嬉皮士合同總價(jià)及工程決算帳戶。</p><p>　　使用效益,工程量清單的,已被實(shí)踐海外,有:</p><p>　　允許投標(biāo)者·工程量清單的統(tǒng)一的基礎(chǔ)(相同的一組工作項(xiàng)目準(zhǔn)備由船東)數(shù)量在招標(biāo)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)做準(zhǔn)備。</p><p>　　投標(biāo)者·什么風(fēng)險(xiǎn)

19、測(cè)量的后續(xù)調(diào)整下的差異</p><p>　　與實(shí)際數(shù)量是被允許的。</p><p>　　估值·堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)的變異。</p><p>　　臨時(shí)付款·堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。</p><p><b>　　決算·堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。</b></p><p>　　良好的成本數(shù)據(jù)(編入·項(xiàng)

20、目緩解分析)</p><p>　　這是一項(xiàng)重大的改革在工程造價(jià)行業(yè)評(píng)估,因?yàn)樗膭?lì)球員投標(biāo)價(jià)格制定他們靠他們自己,基于他們的資源、管理參照?qǐng)?zhí)行效率和市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的價(jià)格和收費(fèi)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。</p><p>　　特別強(qiáng)調(diào),然而,并不是所有的知識(shí),分析了礦區(qū)有自己的資源和數(shù)據(jù)或管理。沒(méi)有硅乳標(biāo)投標(biāo)仍然正被使用估計(jì)被定價(jià)的勞動(dòng)和物質(zhì)含量和定價(jià)利率從發(fā)表那些使用規(guī)范,一些投標(biāo)者用的是勞動(dòng)和材料內(nèi)容的規(guī)范與市場(chǎng)價(jià)

21、格在一起的,只有少數(shù)定價(jià)招標(biāo)使用自己的生產(chǎn)和成本數(shù)據(jù)。</p><p>　　然而在同一個(gè)類的承包商他們的方法的定價(jià)很相似。對(duì)大型項(xiàng)目投標(biāo)通常是足夠的能力在此基礎(chǔ)上使用所有利率成本數(shù)據(jù)的房子。</p><p>　　獨(dú)立區(qū)塊的物項(xiàng)和規(guī)則已經(jīng)開(kāi)始準(zhǔn)備建筑工程、機(jī)械和電氣安裝工程、水電設(shè)施工作,綠化工作。</p><p><b>　　四、合同形式</b>

22、;</p><p>　　目前,最常用的形式的合同在中國(guó)都是本地的形式的合同準(zhǔn)備在此基礎(chǔ)上對(duì)建設(shè)工程施工合同的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)形式,聯(lián)合發(fā)布的,工商行政管理機(jī)關(guān)和建設(shè)部于1999年,具有特定的修改以適應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)氐氖袌?chǎng)情況和實(shí)踐。</p><p>　　但是,一些海外開(kāi)發(fā)商或香港那些堅(jiān)持使用修改版本的英國(guó)法庭聯(lián)合合同標(biāo)準(zhǔn)形式或香港建筑師學(xué)會(huì)形式的建筑合同。一些主要的開(kāi)發(fā)者來(lái)自香港和海外甚至已經(jīng)草擬了他們的個(gè)人量

23、身定制的類型的合同,但它們的使用是成為有限公司自這樣的形體非標(biāo)設(shè)備,尚不清楚當(dāng)?shù)氐漠a(chǎn)業(yè)。同時(shí),還有些形式,這些定制了合同起草了用另一種方式的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分配從中國(guó)的“首選的實(shí)踐和一些術(shù)語(yǔ)在因此認(rèn)為不公平的條款沒(méi)有得到政府的資助。</p><p><b>　　五、資格控制</b></p><p>　　在中國(guó)是一個(gè)資格控制系統(tǒng)下,專業(yè)組織或者專業(yè)必須達(dá)到一個(gè)專業(yè)資格證書或者正在注

24、冊(cè)在一個(gè)公認(rèn)的職業(yè)資格制度才能實(shí)現(xiàn)其專業(yè)服務(wù)允許在律法以下的人。</p><p>　?。≒eter K.M. Ho，Cost Control in the Chinese Construction Sector，http://www.dlsqs.com/ice/index.jsp?mod=newsdetails&op=showimgs&nresponse=true&ctid=433&

25、;showimgs=1&imgname=433_Cost+Engineering+in+Chinese+Construction+Sector.pdf ）</p><p>　　Cost Control in the Chinese Construction Sector</p><p><b>　　Abstract</b></p><p&g

26、t;　　China has been moving away from a planned economy system towards a market economy.The cost engineering system in China has also been evolving to suit this socialist economy system. The paper examined the recent devel

27、opment of some elements of cost engineering relating to the construction sectors as follows and provided some comments thereon :</p><p>　　The cost control process - 5 key stages of cost assessment</p>

28、<p>　　Tendering and Bidding System</p><p>　　Bills of Quantities and All-in-rates</p><p>　　Contract Forms</p><p>　　Qualifications Control</p><p>　　The Cost Control

29、 process – 5 key stages of cost assessment</p><p>　　Due to the heavy capital investment, long construction period and complex nature of</p><p>　　construction projects, the cost control process n

30、ormally involves 5 key stages of cost</p><p>　　estimating and assessment over the lifespan of a project, each using different calculation and estimating methods.</p><p>　　Feasibility Stage</p

31、><p>　　This is an important document for making decisions as to the feasibility of the project.</p><p>　　It sets down the budget limit for a project which normally should not be exceeded.</p>

32、<p>　　Due to the limited information available at this feasibility stage the estimate would just</p><p>　　be a rough indication of costs based on historical data.</p><p>　　Preliminary Des

33、ign Stage</p><p>　　This estimate is an update of the Feasibility Estimate upon receipt of subsequent</p><p>　　design development information. This document is essential in supporting the</p&g

34、t;<p>　　submission of the Preliminary design to the Government Planning Department for</p><p><b>　　approval.</b></p><p>　　If the Preliminary Estimate exceeds the budget set in

35、 the feasibility estimate either</p><p>　　additional funding is to be sought or a revision to the design is required to bring down</p><p>　　the estimate to within the budget.</p><p>

36、;　　Detailed Design Stage</p><p>　　This estimate is prepared on the basis of an itemized build-up according to the</p><p>　　recognized rules and method of measurement, after completion of the det

37、ailed</p><p>　　construction drawings. Under a tender situation if this estimate is completed by the</p><p>　　Developer then it can be used as the Pre-tender Estimate which must be submitted to&l

38、t;/p><p>　　the Tender Bureau for record purposes. The Pre-tender Estimate, duly signed and</p><p>　　stamped by a Registered Cost Engineer, is also a prerequisite for the issue of the</p><

39、;p>　　Construction Permit for the Works.</p><p>　　If the tender sums received are deviated from the Pre-tender Estimate and the deviation amount is beyond the limits set out in the marking scheme for the t

40、ender</p><p>　　assessment, the tender exercise has to be cancelled and a re-tender action is to be</p><p>　　carried out.</p><p>　　Construction Stage</p><p>　　These are

41、the cost assessments carried out during the construction stage in order to</p><p>　　determine the value of work executed. The time intervals between consecutive intervals are dependent upon the contract agre

42、ement, which can either be monthly or</p><p>　　on a milestone basis. The interim assessments also form the basis for interim payments to finance the cashflow of the Contractor.</p><p>　　These co

43、st assessments are not estimates but detailed measurements and they are</p><p>　　continuous throughout the construction period and eventually building up the final</p><p>　　costs of the works.&l

44、t;/p><p>　　Post Completion Stage</p><p>　　This is an accurate assessment of the final cost of the works after the project is completed, taking into account of all relevant drawings and other inform

45、ation, the work</p><p>　　properly completed and costs properly incurred in the project.</p><p>　　The statement of final account will be signed and stamped by a Registered Cost Engineer and will

46、become a conclusive document to be submitted by the Owner/ Developer to the Government upon the completion of the project. It is the only document certifying the total cost of the project.</p><p>　　Tendering

47、 and Bidding System</p><p>　　Tendering has been the most widely used method for the procurement of construction</p><p>　　projects in China. Since the introduction of the tendering system in the

48、1980's, tendering and bidding has been widely used in the procurement of consultancy services, site investigation, design, construction supervision and supply of materials etc.</p><p>　　The Tendering and

49、 Bidding Law of the PRC 2000, which was implemented on 1st January 2000 is the first set of Laws in China consolidating the legal provisions for the tendering and bidding system.</p><p>　　The tendering syste

50、m under this Law has certain salient features. Among others they</p><p><b>　　include :</b></p><p>　　It requires compulsory tendering for infrastructure facilities, public projects af

51、fecting social benefits and social security; projects funded wholly or partly by the Government, projects funded by international organizations and projects funded by loans or aid from foreign governments, etc.</p>

52、<p>　　It sets out that tender exercises can be classified into open or selective tendering.</p><p>　　It requires that tendering has to be handled by tendering agencies that possess the</p><

53、p>　　necessary qualifications, unless the organization that calls the tender has the competence to handle the tendering exercise.</p><p>　　All tender exercises are to be taken place under the supervision o

54、f the Tender Bureau which ensures that the rules and procedures of tendering are complied with.</p><p>　　It requires that tendering has to be handled with fairness, openness and impartiality. The</p>

55、<p>　　methods of publicizing the invitation to open tender via the media are specified. The</p><p>　　marking and scheme for the assessment of incoming tenders must be clearly given at the</p><

56、;p>　　time of tender in the tender documents. Tendering in China normally requires a tenderer</p><p>　　to submit a technical submission and a pricing submission (priced bills of quantities)</p><

57、p>　　separately. The successful tender will be determined under a marking system by a</p><p>　　tender assessment committee which will combine the technical scores and the pricing</p><p>　　resu

58、lt of individual tenderers for comparison before recommending a tender for</p><p>　　acceptance, rather than solely selecting the lowest priced tender.</p><p>　　It sets out the requirement for a

59、tender assessment committee. Within this committee two-thirds of its members are experts to be selected from a panel of experts kept by the government, and outweighs the number of representatives from the owner. This com

60、mittee assesses the tenders according to the project marking scheme and makes recommendations as to the prospective successful tender for the Owner’s acceptance.</p><p>　　Bills of Quantities and All-In-Rates

61、</p><p>　　The use of norms in determining construction costs has been very useful in the past, when China was operated as a planned economy. However this system restricts individual enterprises from tenderin

62、g based on their own resources or advantages such as using a special type of plant or skilled tradesmen to speed up production or reduce the tender price. As a result, the win-win situation wherein the Developer can obta

63、in the best price from the lowest tender and an efficient and competent tenderer ca</p><p>　　In February 2003, The Code of valuation with bill (of) quantity of construction works</p><p>　　(GB505

64、00 – 2003) was published jointly by The Ministry of Housing and Urban – Rural Development (MOHURD) and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China. A new

65、 2008 version, which includes additional guidelines on other contract administration practices such as variations, claims and dispute resolution was subsequently issued in July 2008 for use, superceding the 2003 edition.

66、</p><p>　　The Code sets out the rules and procedures to regulate the preparation of bills of quantities on the basis of drawings, specifications and other requirements and site conditions. This mirrors gener

67、ally the overseas methods of producing bills of quantities.</p><p>　　The Bill of Quantities contains sections of work items and these are generally to be priced by‘All-In-Rates’ which have to be inclusive of

68、 all costs of labour, materials, plant, management,risks plus profit and taxes etc.</p><p>　　The Code requires that tender documents for all medium and large sized construction</p><p>　　projects

69、 which are funded wholly or partly by the Government to be based on Bills of</p><p>　　Quantities prepared according to this document.</p><p>　　All construction projects using bills of quantities

70、 as the basis of obtaining tenders have tofollow the Code in the preparation of pre-tender estimates, tendering prices, determination ofthe contract sum and adjustments and the project final account.</p><p>

71、　　The benefits of using Bills of Quantities, as have been practiced overseas, are:</p><p>　　? Bills of Quantities allow tenderers a uniform basis (the same set of work items with</p><p>　　quanti

72、ties prepared by the Owner) on which to prepare a competitive tender.</p><p>　　? No risk to the tenderers of under measurement as subsequent adjustment for differences</p><p>　　with actual quant

73、ities is allowed.</p><p>　　? Sound basis for valuation of variations.</p><p>　　? Sound basis for interim payments.</p><p>　　? Sound basis for final accounts.</p><p>　　?

74、 Good cost data (codified items ease analyses)</p><p>　　This is a major reform in construction cost assessment as it encourages the industry playersto formulate their tender prices on their own, based on the

75、ir resources, management efficiency and by making reference to competitive market prices and rates.</p><p>　　It is noted, however, that not all contractors have the knowledge, analyses and data of their own

76、resources or management. Therefore some tenders are still being priced by tenders using an estimate of the labour and material content and pricing those using rates from the published norm, some tenderers are using the l

77、abour and material contents from the norm together with market prices and only a few are pricing the tender using their own production and cost data.</p><p>　　However within the same class of contractors the

78、ir method of pricing are quite similar. For major projects the tenders are usually competent enough to use all rates based on this own in house cost data.</p><p>　　Separate sections of items and rules have b

79、een prepared for Building Works, Mechanical and Electrical Installation Works, Utility Services Work, Landscaping Work.</p><p>　　Contract Forms</p><p>　　At present, the most commonly used forms

80、of contract in China are local forms of contract prepared on the basis on the Standard Form of Construction Contract issued jointly by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce and the Ministry of Construction i

81、n 1999, with modifications made to suit particular local market conditions and practices.</p><p>　　There are however, some developers from overseas or Hong Kong who insist on using a modified version of the

82、UK Joint Contract Tribunal Standard Forms or the Hong Kong Institute of Architects Form of Building Contract. Some major developers from Hong Kong or overseas have even drawn up their individual bespoke types of contract

83、 but their use is becoming limited since such forms are non-standard and are not well known to the local industry. Also, there were cases that these custom made contracts f</p><p>　　Qualification Control<

84、/p><p>　　Qualification control in China is a system under which a professional organization or a</p><p>　　professional has to achieve a professional qualification or being registered in a recognize