采購?fù)馕姆g

1、<p>　　出處：James R. Stock, Strategic logistics Management Macmillan Publishing Company, 2005</p><p>　　采購?fù)馕姆g（華東交通大學(xué)畢設(shè)）</p><p>　　采購和采辦這兩個(gè)術(shù)語盡管其適用范圍確實(shí)不同但通常被人們替換使用。采購?fù)ǔＶ肝锪系膶?shí)際購置以及相關(guān)的購買活動(dòng)。采辦范圍更為廣泛，

2、包括采購、交通、倉儲(chǔ)和接受運(yùn)人物料。</p><p>　　采購決策者可比作魔術(shù)師，為了實(shí)現(xiàn)多種目標(biāo)常在空中同時(shí)拋擲多種球。采購目標(biāo)是：</p><p>　?、?為了保證組織的經(jīng)營活動(dòng)不間斷地提供物料、供應(yīng)品及服務(wù)。</p><p>　?、?使庫存投資與損失降至最低程度。</p><p>　?、?保持適當(dāng)?shù)馁|(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。</p>&l

3、t;p>　?、?尋找并開發(fā)質(zhì)量可靠的賣方。</p><p>　?、?如有可能，制定出所購項(xiàng)目的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，使之標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化。</p><p>　?、?以最低的最終價(jià)格購買所需物料和服務(wù)。</p><p>　　⑺.保持組織的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)地位</p><p>　?、?與組織內(nèi)其他部門保持協(xié)調(diào)的工作關(guān)系</p><p>　　⑼.以最可能低

4、的管理成本實(shí)現(xiàn)采購目標(biāo)</p><p>　　影響公司實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)能力的主要采購活動(dòng)是：供應(yīng)商的選擇和評(píng)估，質(zhì)量控制和超前購買。</p><p><b>　　供應(yīng)商的選擇和評(píng)估</b></p><p>　　在物料購置活動(dòng)中，最重要的活動(dòng)或許即是在能夠供應(yīng)所需物料的諸多賣方中，選擇最好的供應(yīng)商。由于購買過程極為復(fù)雜，因此制定購買決策時(shí)必須考慮各種因素

5、。購買過程包括：將決策制定者與決策的影響者結(jié)合起來共同形成決策單位，包括許多步驟，共有12個(gè)方面：鑒定需求；制定計(jì)劃書（或規(guī)格）；尋找選擇對(duì)象；建立關(guān)系；設(shè)立采購和使用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)；評(píng)估購買行為；確定預(yù)算的可得性；評(píng)估具體的選擇對(duì)象；與供應(yīng)商進(jìn)行磋商；購買；使用及進(jìn)行購后評(píng)估。除非完全是新決策，否則沒有必要履行采購過程的全部12個(gè)步驟。如果在例行購買之前就已制定出決策．那么很多步驟可被省略。</p><p>　　當(dāng)采購管

6、理者制定采購決策時(shí)，可運(yùn)用下面某些或全部變量：</p><p><b>　　·訂貨間隔期</b></p><p>　　·訂貨間隔期的變化（幅度）</p><p><b>　　·準(zhǔn)時(shí)交貨占的比例</b></p><p><b>　　·購買現(xiàn)貨占的比例&

7、lt;/b></p><p>　　·訂貨或信息交流的方便性</p><p>　　·加速處理訂購物料的能力</p><p>　　·由于賣方失誤、部分交貨和（或）晚到造成的停產(chǎn)時(shí)間</p><p><b>　　·產(chǎn)品可靠性</b></p><p>　　&#

8、183;維修或操作的難易性</p><p>　　·因部件或材料造成的產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量不合格</p><p><b>　　·質(zhì)量不合格</b></p><p><b>　　·技術(shù)規(guī)格</b></p><p>　　·所提供的技術(shù)或培訓(xùn)服務(wù)</p><p

9、><b>　　·價(jià)格的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性</b></p><p><b>　　·對(duì)銷售代表的信任</b></p><p>　　·過去與賣方交易的體驗(yàn)</p><p><b>　　·賣方的總體信譽(yù)</b></p><p><b>　　&

10、#183;資金問題</b></p><p><b>　　·購買后的銷售服務(wù)</b></p><p>　　·賣方在滿足需求方面的靈活性</p><p><b>　　·工程或設(shè)計(jì)能力</b></p><p>　　對(duì)多數(shù)公司來說，采購貨物主要有六種類型:(1)部件

11、；(2）原材料;(3)在制品；(4)附屬設(shè)備；(5)主要設(shè)備；（6）經(jīng)營的供應(yīng)品。任何一種產(chǎn)品均可在4種采購形勢(shì)下購買。</p><p>　　①.例行購買—以前這種產(chǎn)品已多次采購過，而且訂貨手續(xù)或程序已了如指掌。</p><p>　　②.嘗試性采購—指的是非常規(guī)性采購，并要求員工學(xué)會(huì)怎樣使用產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　?、?替代品的購買—指的是非常規(guī)性購買，購買的目的

12、是成為當(dāng)前所使用產(chǎn)品的替代品，但其性能需要檢測(cè)。</p><p>　　④.政治采購—指的是非常規(guī)性產(chǎn)品的購買，其使用會(huì)影響到公司的很多部門，因此，整個(gè)公司都要參與決策過程。</p><p>　　通常，當(dāng)制定采購決策時(shí)，上述變量中質(zhì)量、價(jià)格、交貨及服務(wù)被一致認(rèn)為是上述四種采購形勢(shì)中相當(dāng)重要的考慮因素，盡管有些公司對(duì)它的評(píng)估不太正式，但多數(shù)公司都為產(chǎn)品采購建立了正式書面材料。</p>

13、;<p>　　一種用以有效衡量產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量好壞的方法是：一月一次將從不同供應(yīng)商處所采購產(chǎn)品的金額數(shù)及在這月期間產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量不合格的金額繪成圖表，然后用后者的數(shù)據(jù)除以采購價(jià)值，算出不合格率。</p><p>　　通過將不同供應(yīng)商所提供產(chǎn)品的不合格率進(jìn)行對(duì)照分析，或者通過對(duì)比找出哪些供應(yīng)商產(chǎn)品的不合格率高于平均水平，即可獲知哪些供應(yīng)商提供的產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量較好。</p><p>　　有許多種評(píng)估

14、方法，然而很難找到最好方法，最重要的是要使用一些行之有效的方法。管理者必須確認(rèn)所購產(chǎn)品的所有潛在供應(yīng)商。下一步是開發(fā)一系列用于評(píng)估供應(yīng)商的要素。管理人員可以運(yùn)用本文中提及的變量，也可以開發(fā)其他變量。要素一旦確定后，就需要對(duì)每個(gè)供應(yīng)商的每項(xiàng)要素（如，產(chǎn)品可靠性、價(jià)格、訂單的方便性等）進(jìn)行評(píng)估。</p><p>　　對(duì)供應(yīng)商的每項(xiàng)要素評(píng)估后，管理人員必須確定每項(xiàng)要素在企業(yè)實(shí)際情況中的重要性，例如，產(chǎn)品可靠性是企業(yè)至關(guān)

15、重要的因素，該要素的重要性得分就最高，如果價(jià)格沒有產(chǎn)品可靠性重要，管理人員給價(jià)格重要性的分?jǐn)?shù)就要低一些，任何不重要要素的重要性得分可定為0。</p><p>　　再下一步就是將供應(yīng)商的要素得分與重要性得分相乘，算出每項(xiàng)要素的加權(quán)得分。每項(xiàng)要素的加權(quán)得分之和即是用于評(píng)估供應(yīng)商的綜合得分。綜合分?jǐn)?shù)越高，供應(yīng)商越能滿足采購企業(yè)的需求與規(guī)格要求。</p><p>　　在原理上，這類分析法對(duì)采購經(jīng)理

16、來說并非是全新方法。許多決策需要將一種類型的變量或特征與其他的進(jìn)行權(quán)衡。本方法的新穎之處與有價(jià)之處在于它使權(quán)衡變量過程明晰化，這主要在于它迫使我們明確采購決策的重要要素，有助于將問題公開化并對(duì)直觀的或習(xí)慣性的優(yōu)先選擇要素進(jìn)行審視。</p><p>　　在國際市場(chǎng)上采購物料時(shí)，對(duì)供應(yīng)商的選擇會(huì)更難些。然而由于成本因素和可獲得性因素，許多公司從國外采購原材料、部件、裝配件。當(dāng)一個(gè)企業(yè)從國外采購物料時(shí)應(yīng)對(duì)有關(guān)國際貨源的

17、某些問題做到心中有數(shù)。</p><p><b>　　質(zhì)量控制</b></p><p>　　盡管成本是物料購置中最重要的考慮因素之一，質(zhì)量控制也是至關(guān)重要的。一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的起初采購價(jià)格只是總成本的一個(gè)要素，比如：某些項(xiàng)目比其他項(xiàng)目更易于生產(chǎn)加工，并能節(jié)省生產(chǎn)成本；高質(zhì)量的物料會(huì)減少制造過程；或有較長的使用壽命，結(jié)果使得產(chǎn)成品的總成本降低或可定較高的價(jià)格。</p>

18、<p>　　公司進(jìn)行采購時(shí)，應(yīng)對(duì)采購價(jià)格、（生產(chǎn)）成本及獲得的價(jià)值進(jìn)行權(quán)衡。</p><p>　　產(chǎn)成品的質(zhì)量水平確定后，采購回適當(dāng)質(zhì)量的物料即是采購部門的責(zé)任，他們應(yīng)向供應(yīng)商提交正確的質(zhì)量采購規(guī)格。當(dāng)然應(yīng)選擇那些質(zhì)量好、價(jià)格優(yōu)的供應(yīng)商。向供應(yīng)商提交的質(zhì)量水平，可從以下幾個(gè)方面考慮：</p><p><b>　　·市場(chǎng)等級(jí)</b></p&

19、gt;<p><b>　　·商標(biāo)</b></p><p><b>　　·商業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)</b></p><p><b>　　·化學(xué)或物理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)</b></p><p><b>　　·性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)</b></p><p&

20、gt;　　·物料規(guī)格及制造方法標(biāo)準(zhǔn)</p><p><b>　　·藍(lán)圖（工程圖紙）</b></p><p><b>　　·樣品</b></p><p>　　·合乎要求的產(chǎn)品目錄</p><p>　　·上述各種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的組合</p><

21、p>　　一個(gè)公司不應(yīng)該花高成本購買高于生產(chǎn)部門所要求的質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的物料，除非營銷與物流值得這么做，采購質(zhì)量不必要地超過標(biāo)準(zhǔn)會(huì)不必要地追加最終產(chǎn)品的成本。</p><p><b>　　超前采購</b></p><p>　　除非緊急采購，所有的采購活動(dòng)都是提前進(jìn)行的，即在原材料、部件、裝配件需求之前采購，準(zhǔn)確地說，超前購買指在需求或使用之前所進(jìn)行的采購，其采購數(shù)量超過

22、當(dāng)前需求。</p><p>　　一個(gè)公司從事超前采購時(shí)，主要是為了防止（采購）市場(chǎng)不尋常或不穩(wěn)定(給公司帶來生產(chǎn)的影響），這種情形主要有：價(jià)格有可能上漲、供應(yīng)短缺或其他不尋常事情的發(fā)生。有效的超前購買有助于使采購物料的邊際利潤最大化。</p><p>　　實(shí)際上，有兩個(gè)主要原因促使公司超前購買。首先，超前購買能降低原材料等成本上漲給公司帶來的影響，至少在庫存消耗完之前，公司不受市場(chǎng)上物料價(jià)

23、格上漲的影響；其二，超前購買可以預(yù)防將來供貨的不穩(wěn)定性。正是由于市場(chǎng)通常是不穩(wěn)定的，所以各公司間進(jìn)行超前購買是常有的事。</p><p>　　盡管超前購買能帶來好處，但也有其缺點(diǎn)。許多企業(yè)是為防止價(jià)格上漲而進(jìn)行超前購買，然而有些時(shí)候卻因技術(shù)開發(fā)、競(jìng)爭(zhēng)壓力或其他原因，物料價(jià)格反而下降了，所以公司就會(huì)產(chǎn)生以高價(jià)格購回大量物料的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，另外一個(gè)往往被人們忽略的缺點(diǎn)即是因?yàn)榇罅繋齑娑鴰淼膸齑姹９苜M(fèi)用的增加。超前購買帶來的

24、節(jié)省必須超過額外的庫存保管費(fèi)才合算。在這個(gè)例子中，公司一月采購一次值2000美元的一種物料，這2000美元的物料即是該公司一月的消耗能力。供應(yīng)商的銷售人員聲稱下個(gè)月起價(jià)格要上漲10%，并鼓勵(lì)物料采購經(jīng)理考慮進(jìn)行超前購買。如果該公司一月一買，在第一個(gè)月的平均庫存水平為1000美元，但不會(huì)帶來任何采購價(jià)格的節(jié)省，一個(gè)月的庫存保管費(fèi)是25美元，(1000x30% /12)，其余11個(gè)月的庫存保管費(fèi)為302.50美元（1000x30% x11/

25、12)。由于公司沒采用超前購買，其全部庫存保管費(fèi)為327.50美元，其節(jié)省為0.然而，如果采購經(jīng)理一次訂購了兩個(gè)月的消耗量，則訂貨費(fèi)用減少了20美元，價(jià)格節(jié)省了200美元，共節(jié)省220美元，庫存保管費(fèi)將會(huì)增加47.50美元（$375.00—$327.50),結(jié)果，會(huì)帶來172.50美元</p><p>　　最優(yōu)化的超前購買是購買5個(gè)月的消耗量，能節(jié)省390美元。然而，如果采購經(jīng)理只簡(jiǎn)單地考慮采購價(jià)格，他可能考慮購

26、買12個(gè)月的消耗量，結(jié)果會(huì)給公司帶來852.50美元的額外花費(fèi)，也就是說一次訂購12個(gè)月的消耗量，會(huì)使公司的稅前利潤減少852.50美元。這個(gè)例子足以說明在進(jìn)行超前采購時(shí)一定要考慮庫存保管費(fèi)這一因素。</p><p>　　另外一個(gè)缺點(diǎn)即是因超前購買而減少了公司現(xiàn)金。占?jí)涸趲齑嫔系馁Y金就不能用于別處。因此，一個(gè)公司在從事超前購買之前，應(yīng)預(yù)先了解將來流動(dòng)資金的需求情況。</p><p><

27、;b>　　假設(shè)：計(jì)算提示：</b></p><p>　　1)每月使用量=$2000 $1000 x 30% x 1/12 = $25</p><p>　　2)預(yù)計(jì)價(jià)格上漲10%</p><p>　　3)庫存保管費(fèi)為30% $2200/2x 30% x 11/12=$302.50</p><p>　　4)每次訂單

28、處理費(fèi)用=$20.00</p><p>　　5)賣方支付運(yùn)費(fèi) $12000/2 x 30%x 12/12=$3600</p><p>　　成本權(quán)衡是成功地執(zhí)行采購職能的關(guān)鍵。管理人員應(yīng)全面考慮這些因素，要致力于總成本最低，而不是某一方面的成本最低，這一點(diǎn)非常關(guān)鍵因?yàn)樵噲D降低單個(gè)成本實(shí)際上就會(huì)增加總成本。</p><p><b>　　零庫存系統(tǒng)

29、</b></p><p>　　最近幾年來，看板和零庫存系統(tǒng)在制造和物流經(jīng)營中變得尤為重要?？窗澹脖环Q為豐田生產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)，是由豐田汽車公司在20世紀(jì)50年代與60年代間開發(fā)的?？窗逯傅氖橇悴考⒃牧锨『迷诠S生產(chǎn)過程需要時(shí)得以供應(yīng)的供應(yīng)系統(tǒng)，這樣所供零件、原材料可以立即投人使用。盡管該技術(shù)主要與汽車工業(yè)有關(guān)，它可用于包含重復(fù)作業(yè)的任何制造過程。</p><p>　　零庫存系統(tǒng)是在

30、看板的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展起來的。零庫存系統(tǒng)將采購與采辦、制造和物流聯(lián)系在一起。它的主要目標(biāo)是將庫存降至最低、提高產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量、使生產(chǎn)率實(shí)現(xiàn)最大化和提供最優(yōu)的顧客服務(wù)水平。它體現(xiàn)的是經(jīng)營宗旨。</p><p>　　零庫存系統(tǒng)被定義為原材料向產(chǎn)品轉(zhuǎn)換過程中，用以整合與控制生產(chǎn)過程的工具，其過程包括：供應(yīng)商與供應(yīng)源的選擇、運(yùn)輸、儲(chǔ)存和檢驗(yàn)、制造和質(zhì)量控制.</p><p>　　該系統(tǒng)特別強(qiáng)調(diào)在準(zhǔn)確的時(shí)間儲(chǔ)存

31、、運(yùn)輸、生產(chǎn)或檢驗(yàn)所需產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　　零庫存系統(tǒng)的核心是完成－項(xiàng)任務(wù)如超過了所需的最小庫存即視為浪費(fèi)。換句話說，用于追加產(chǎn)品價(jià)值的原料、機(jī)器和人力超過了最小數(shù)量即被認(rèn)為浪費(fèi)。該思想與傳統(tǒng)的“以防萬一，形成了鮮明對(duì)照，后者為了以防萬一常常保管大量安全庫存。在零庫存管理中，理想的批量或經(jīng)濟(jì)訂購量被視為一個(gè)單位，安全庫存被認(rèn)為是多余的，任何安全庫存均需要消除。</p><p>　　看

32、板和零庫存系統(tǒng)最著名的實(shí)例即是豐田法。通過降低庫存、迫使問題公開化，豐田找出了供應(yīng)和產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量問題。不再需要安全庫存予以克服供應(yīng)商交貨耽擱及供錯(cuò)部件等問題，使豐田消除了生產(chǎn)和供應(yīng)的“隱患”問題。</p><p>　　最近幾年，美國的許多企業(yè)也采用了零庫存法，其顯著優(yōu)點(diǎn)如下：</p><p>　?、牛蟠筇岣吡嗽牧?、在制品庫存的周轉(zhuǎn)率；</p><p>　?、疲a(chǎn)準(zhǔn)

33、備時(shí)間可減少75%;</p><p>　?、牵蟠鬁p少了裝配線脫節(jié)的機(jī)會(huì)；</p><p>　　⑷．大大減少了在制品庫存成本；</p><p>　　⑸．大大減少了顧客對(duì)產(chǎn)品缺陷和擔(dān)保的索賠。</p><p>　　并非所有部件的經(jīng)營均可采用看板或零庫存法，只有對(duì)于那些能夠重復(fù)使用、形狀規(guī)則的項(xiàng)目來說，零庫存系統(tǒng)才能運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)良好。</p>

34、<p>　　Purchasing</p><p>　　The terms purchasing and procurement are often used interchangeably, although they do differ in scope. Purchasing generally refers to the actual buying of materials and those

35、 activities associated with the buy process. Procurement has a broader meaning, and includes purchasing, traffic, warehousing and receiving inbound materials.</p><p>　　"The purchasing decision-maker mi

36、ght be likened to juggler, attempting to keep several balls in the air at the same time, for the purchaser must achieve several goals simultaneously." The goals of purchasing are to:</p><p>　　Provide an

37、 uninterrupted flow of materials, supplies and services required to operate the organization.</p><p>　　Keep inventory investment and toss at a minimum.</p><p>　　Maintain adequate quality standar

38、ds.</p><p>　　Find or develop quality vendors.</p><p>　　Standardize the items bought, if possible.</p><p>　　Purchase required items and services at the lowest ultimate prices.</p&

39、gt;<p>　　Maintain the organization's competitive position.</p><p>　　Achieve harmonious, productive working relationships with other departments within the organization.</p><p>　　Accom

40、plish the purchasing objectives at the lowest possible level of the administrative costs.</p><p>　　Among the primary purchasing activities that influence the ability of the firm to achieve objectives are sup

41、plier selection and evaluation (sourcing), quality control, and forward buying.</p><p>　　Supplier Selection and Evaluation</p><p>　　In the acquisition process, perhaps the most important activit

42、y is selecting the best supplier from among a number of vendors that can supply the needed materials. The buying process is complex because of the variety of factors that must be considered when making such a decision. T

43、he process includes both decision - makers and decision influences, which combine to form the decision - making unit (DMU). The process has a number of stages, and includes the following 12 steps: identify needs, estab&l

44、t;/p><p>　　Purchasing managers may use some or all of the following variables when making the purchasing decision:</p><p>　　? Lead time.</p><p>　　?Lead time variability.</p><

45、;p>　　?Percentage of on - time deliveries.</p><p>　　? Percentage in _ stock availability.</p><p>　　Convenience in ordering/communication.</p><p>　　? Ability to expedite.</p>

46、<p>　　? Down time caused by vendor errors, partial shipments and/or late deliveries.</p><p>　　? Product reliability.</p><p>　　? Ease of maintenance/operation.</p><p>　　? Prod

47、uct failures caused by parts/materials.</p><p>　　?Quality rejects.</p><p>　　?Technical specifications.</p><p>　　?Technical/training services offered.</p><p>　　?Competit

48、iveness of price. </p><p>　　?Confidence in the sales representative.</p><p>　　?Past experience with vendor.</p><p>　　Overall reputation of the vendor.</p><p>　　? Financ

49、ing terms.</p><p>　　? Post-purchase safes service.</p><p>　　? Vendor's flexibility in adjusting to the buying company's needs.</p><p>　　? Engineering/design capabilities.<

50、;/p><p>　　There are six major product categories that were purchased by most companies: (1) component parts, (2) raw materials, (3) process materials, (4) accessory equipment, (5) major equipment, and (6) opera

51、ting supplies. Each product category could be purchased in any of the four buying situations:</p><p>　　1. Routine order situations includes situations where the product has been purchased many times previous

52、ly and where order routines or procedures are generally established.</p><p>　　Procedural problem situations includes purchases which are not routine and which may require that employees learn how to use the

53、product.</p><p>　　Performance problem situations includes non - routine purchases of products which are designed to be substitutes for current products but which must be tested for performance.</p>&l

54、t;p>　　4. Political problem situationsincludes non - routine purchases of products whose use would affect many departments of the company; thus, a number of individuals throughout the firm will be involved in the dec

55、ision process.</p><p>　　In general, among the above variables when making the purchasing decision, the factors of quality, price, delivery, end service are consistently rated as important in almost every pro

56、duct category/buying situation. While many firms perform the evaluation process informally, some companies establish formal, written procedures for the purchasing process.</p><p>　　One method that has been f

57、ound effective in rating quality is to make a monthly tabulation of the invoices from each supplier and value of the supplier's materials that were rejected during the month. The latter figure is then divided by the

58、value of the materials shipped, and the resulting percentage indicates the rate of rejection.</p><p>　　Comparison of rejection rates among competing suppliers, or against an average of rejection rates shows

59、those suppliers who are providing the proper quality.</p><p>　　A variety of evaluation procedures are possible; there is no best method or approach. The important thing is to make certain that some procedure

60、s are used. The manager must identify all potential suppliers for the item(s) being purchased. The next step is to develop a list of factors by which to evaluate each supplier. Management can use the variables mentioned

61、in this text or develop another list. Once the factors have been determined, the performance of individual suppliers should be evaluated</p><p>　　After evaluating suppliers on each factor, management must de

62、termine the importance of the factors to its particular situation. If, for example, product reliability is of paramount importance to the firm, that (actor will be given the highest importance rating. If price was not as

63、 important as product reliability, management will assign price a tower importance rating. Any factor that is not important to the firm will be assigned a zero.</p><p>　　The next step is to develop a weighte

64、d composite measure for each factor. This is done by multiplying the supplier's rating for a factor by the factor's importance. The addition of the composite scores for each supplier provides an overall rating th

65、at can be compared to other suppliers. The higher the composite score, the more closely the supplier meets the needs and the specifications of the procuring company.</p><p>　　In principle, this kind of analy

66、sis is not completely new to purchasing managers. Many decisions involve balancing one type of variable or characteristic against another. What is new and valuable about this approach, however, is that it makes the proc

67、ess of weighing variables explicit: Because it forces us to formalize the important elements of the purchasing decision, it helps us bring our tacit assumptions to the surface and questions our intuitive or habitual prio

68、rities.</p><p>　　The process of suppler selection is more difficult when materials are being purchased in international markets. However, more firms are buying raw materials, components, and subassemblies fr

69、om foreign sources, primarily because of cost and availability. When a company utilizes foreign suppers it should have an understanding of some of the problems associated with international sourcing. </p><p>

70、;　　Quality Control</p><p>　　Although cost is one of the most important considerations in material acquisition, quality control is also vital. The initial purchase price of an item is only one element of the

71、total cost. For example, some items are easier to work with than others and can save production costs. Materials of higher quality may require fewer fabrication processes or have a longer life span, thus resulting in low

72、er overall product coats and/or higher prices for finished products. Companies must achieve some bala</p><p>　　After the quality level has been determined, usually by manufacturing, it becomes purchasing res

73、ponsibility to secure the proper materials. The correct quality specifications must be given to suppliers. The vendor that offers the best cost/quality package should be selected. Quality level can be specified to suppli

74、ers in a variety of ways, including:</p><p>　　? Market grades.</p><p>　　? Brand or trade names.</p><p>　　? Commercial standards.</p><p>　　? Chemical or physical specifi

75、cations.</p><p>　　? Performance specifications.</p><p>　　? Material and method-of-manufacturer specifications. </p><p>　　? Blueprints (engineering drawings).</p><p>　　?

76、 Samples.</p><p>　　? Quality products list.</p><p>　　? Combination of above specifications.</p><p>　　The firm should never pay higher prices to obtain materials with higher quality

77、levels than those specified by manufacturing, unless they are justifiable marketing or logistics reasons for doing so. Purchasing materials that needlessly exceed quality specification add unnecessary costs to the ultim

78、ate product.</p><p>　　Forward Buying</p><p>　　All purchasing activities, except emergency purchases, represent forward buying if materials, component parts, and subassemblies are available in ad

79、vance of the time they are needed. More accurately forward buying refers to the purchase of materials in quantities exceeding current requirements, well in advance of their need or use.</p><p>　　For an orga

80、nization to practice forward buying, it must be experiencing some unusual, changing, or unstable market condition. This kind of a purchase can be made because of a pending price increase, a potential supply shortage, or

81、some unusual . . . condition. Effective forward buying can help maximize purchasing contribution to profits.</p><p>　　Essentially, there are two major reasons why a firm would engage in forward buying. First

82、, forward buying minimizes the effects of rising material costs. At least for a time until the materials are depleted from inventory, the firm is protected torn price increases in the marketplace. Second, forward buying

83、provides protection against future availability problems. Forward buying is more popular among firms as availability uncertainties become more commonplace.</p><p>　　While there are benefits associated with f

84、orward buying, there are also disadvantages. Many companies make forward purchases in anticipation of price increases. There are times, however, when materials prices usually go down because of technological development

85、s, competitive pressures, and other factors. There is thus a risk that the firm may purchase materials at prices higher than necessary. Another overlooked disadvantage of forward buying is the increased inventory carryin

86、g cost incurred wi</p><p>　　The optimal forward buy would be a five - month supply, which would result in net savings of $390. However, if the purchasing manager judged solely on the per-unit purchase price,

87、 he or she would purchase a 12 - month supply, at a cost to the firm of $852. 50. That is, purchasing 12 _ month supply would result in decrease in pretax profits of $852. 50. This example illustrates that inventory carr

88、ying costs must be included in the forward buying decision. </p><p>　　Another disadvantage is the reduction in the firm's cash that results from forward buying. Funds expended for inventories are not ava

89、ilable for other uses. Therefore, the firm should anticipate future working capital needs before engaging in forward buying.</p><p>　　Assumptions: key: </p><p>　　1) Monthly

90、Usage=$2000 $1000 x 30% x 1/12 = $25</p><p>　　2) Expected price increase=10 percent</p><p>　　3) Inventory Carrying Cost = 30 percent $2200/2x 30% x 11/12=$302.50</p><p>　

91、　4) Ordering Cost = $20.00</p><p>　　5) Vendor pays the Freight $12000 /2 x 30% x 12/12=$3600</p><p>　　Cost trade _ offs are a key to successfully managing die purchasing function. By thin

92、king in terms of the coat trade - offs, management should minimize the total of those costs rather than attempt to minimize the cost of either component. This is critical, as attempts to reduce individual costs may in fa

93、ct actually increase total costs.</p><p>　　Just - in - Time Systems</p><p>　　Kanban and Just - in - Time systems have become much more important in manufacturing and logistics operations in rece

94、nt years. Kanban, also known as the Toyota Production System (TPS), was developed by Toyota Motor Company during the 1950s and 1960s; "Kanban is basically the system of supplying parts and materials just at the very

95、 moment they are needed in the factory production process so those parts and materials are instantly put to use." While the technique is most often associated with the </p><p>　　An expansion of Kanban a

96、re Just-in-Time (JIT) systems. JIT links purchasing and procurement, manufacturing, and logistics. Its primary goals are to minimize inventories, improve product quality, maximize production efficiency, and provide optim

97、al customer service levels. It is basically a philosophy of doing business.</p><p>　　JIT has been defined as:</p><p>　　A tool to integrate and control the entire process of steps by which materi

98、als are transformed into products. Included in this process are the functions of supplier and source selection, transportation, storage and inspection, manufacturing, and quality control.</p><p>　　The system

99、 specifies what should be stored, moved, produced, or inspected and precisely when it should be done.</p><p>　　At the heart of JIT system is the notion that anything over the minimum amount necessary for a t

100、ask is considered wasteful: "waste is considered anything other than the absolute minimum resources of material, machines, and manpower required to add value to the product." This is in direct contrast to the t

101、raditional philosophy of "just - in - case," in which large inventories of safety stocks are held in event they are needed. In the case of JIT, the ideal lot size or EOQ is one unit, safety stoc</p><

102、p>　　Perhaps the best known example of Kanban and JIT systems is the approach developed by Toyota. Through reduction of inventories, Toyota identified problems in supply and product quality, because problems were force

103、d into the open. Safety stocks were no longer available to overcome supplier delays and faulty components, thus forcing Toyota to eliminate “hidden" production and supply problems.</p><p>　　It is the sa

104、me type of procedure that, in recent years, has been applied in many companies in the United Slates. The evident advantages of the system are as follows:</p><p>　　Largely increased inventory turnover ratio f

105、or raw materials and goods in process;</p><p>　　Reduction in production setup times by more than 75%;</p><p>　　Significant reduction in assembly line stock outs;</p><p>　　In-Process