[雙語翻譯]--新能源汽車外文翻譯--運輸系統(tǒng)中替代燃料的歷史電動和混合動力汽車案例（英文）

1、The history of alternative fuels in transportation: The case of electric and hybrid carsKarl Georg Høyer*Technology, Design received in revised form 1 November 2007; accepted 25 November 2007AbstractThe article des

2、cribes and presents a critical analysis of the long history of alternative fuels and propulsion technologies, particularly in automobile applications. Cases are electric and hybrid cars. The term ‘‘critical analysis’’ re

3、fers to the analysis of the various alternative tech- nologies in relation to their societal contexts. In particular, these are the varying contexts of energy security, energy policy, environmental prob- lems, sustainabi

4、lity, and also the later more explicit climate change context. This approach gives some knowledge with relevance to the current discussions on implementation issues. The work is first of all founded on the knowledge fiel

5、d of ‘‘Social Studies of Technological Systems’’. ? 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Alternative fuels history; Electric cars; Hybrid cars1. Electric carsdthe early innovatorsThe history of electric cars

6、is closely related to the history of batteries (Wakefield, 1994; Sperling, 1995; Westbrook, 2001; Anderson and Anderson, 2005). The names of all the early innovators are still used today. In 1800, the Italian Ales- sandr

7、o Volta demonstrated that electric energy could be stored chemically. He himself was inspired by some earlier experi- ments made by his countryman Luigi Galvani. Galvani was a professor in medicine, who carried out some

8、rather cruel ex- periments in which he observed the twitching of a frog’s leg when subjecting it to what would later be known as electric current. In 1821, the Briton Michael Farraday demonstrated the principles of the e

9、lectric motordor generatordwhile ap- plying Volta’s chemical pile as a component of his experi- ments. Later, in 1831, Farraday showed the principles of electromagnetic induction with the close relation between electric

10、currents and magnetism, thereby laying the foundation for the electric motors and generators explicitly required for electric cars. The first experimental light-weight electricvehicles thus appeared both in the USA, UK a

11、nd the Nether- lands in the mid-1830s. Extensive developments in electro- chemistry took place in these early years. In 1859, the Belgian Gaston Plante ´ made a path-breaking demonstration of the first lead-acid bat

12、tery cell. This implied the invention of the lead-acid battery still used as a starter battery in all internal combustion engine (ICE) cars and also as a power bat- tery in most electric cars. Other chemical cell batteri

13、es were further developed in these years, for instance the ironezinc battery. And only a few years later, in 1861, another Italian, Antonio Pacinotti, invented the ‘‘ring’’ direct current motor. The first electric vehicl

14、eda tricycledapplying the Plante ´ lead battery as a power source was demonstrated in France by a Mr Trouve ´ in 1881. In the Seine the same year, he actu- ally demonstrated the first electric boat with a simil

15、ar power source. During these years, the early 1880s, other similar elec- tric tricycles with lead batteries were also demonstrated in the USA and UK. In this context, it is worth remembering that the German Benz demonst

16、rated the first ICE vehicle in 1885. Later on Thomas Edison joined forces, as he saw great opportunities for electric cars. He made substantial efforts to develop more efficient batteries. In 1901, he came up with the ni

17、ckeleiron battery, which was very much in focus when* Tel.: þ47 22 45 30 51; fax: þ47 22 45 30 05. E-mail address: karl.georg.hoyer@hio.no0957-1787/$ - see front matter ? 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

18、 doi:10.1016/j.jup.2007.11.001Available online at www.sciencedirect.comUtilities Policy 16 (2008) 63e71www.elsevier.com/locate/jup3. Wartime conditionsAt this time, however, the electric vehicles still constituted a thri

19、ving industry. The War in Europe only increased the pro- duction and development potentials. In the USA as a major world exporter, and in England, Germany and France due to the fact that most gasoline vehicles were requi

20、sitioned the war effort. Whole municipal fleets of electric vehicles were used for street cleaning and garbage collection, and many mer- chants had their own private fleets of electric vans for retail and goods deliverie

21、s. England for instance had more than 1000 electric trucks in these years. The infrastructure was also developed. Birmingham district is known to have had seven charging stations only in the city area, and more than twen

22、ty in the surrounding district. Both in the USA and Europe in this period, large efforts were put into the enhance- ment of recharging infrastructures and potentials. Two conditions were crucial to this war peak in produ

23、ction and use: firstly, the gasoline shortage and the requisitioning of ICE vehicles to take part in the war effort; secondly, an exten- sive development of new electric power stations took placedmostly large coal-fired

24、power stations as known from England and Germany, but also large hydro power stations in Italy, Norway and Sweden. Electricity seemed to become an abundant resource, available not only for industrial pur- poses but for t

25、ransportation as well. By the end of the First World War, the USA alone had an estimated 50,000 electric vehicles altogether, and they were exporting large numbers to war-torn Europe, mostly cars for private passenger tr

26、ansport. At an automobile show in New York in 1918, cars from four major electric vehicle companies were demonstrated. A number of buyers from many European countries including Norway and Sweden, but also Japan and South

27、 America, were there to place large orders. A Norwegian for instance immediately placed an order for one hundred cars, ready to buy another forty within a fortnight. Several electric taxis were sold to Japan (Wakefield,

28、1994; Westbrook, 2001; Anderson and Anderson, 2005). Expectations were high, but they would soon fade. The electric vehicles lost ground to the gasoline and diesel ICE ve- hicles. Some companies were still producing vari

29、ous models throughout the 1920s. However, sales were relatively low, and with the stock market crash in 1929 and the international economic depression, most of the companies left went bank- rupt. In the USA, electric car

30、 production did not resume again before the Second World War. Again there was a wartime peak, caused by gasoline shortage and the priority given to warfront use of both gasoline and diesel. A similar peak was experienced

31、 in most European countries, and in Japan, where the electric car production continued until the early 1950s due to prolonged gasoline shortage. German authorities in particu- lar actively promoted the use of electric ve

32、hicles by making them tax-exempt, emphasising the fact that this by far is a new measure. During wartime they had about 30,000 electric vehicles running, for instance for postal service. Electric vehi- cles were thus see

33、n on the roads in quite significant numbers, but this time to a larger extent together with ICE vehiclesapplying various types of alternative fuels from local renew- able resources, notably bioalcohols and biodiesels (An

34、derson and Anderson, 2005). Within this wartime context, Great Britain has a somewhat different story. It is basically the story of the electric milk vans, the most long-lived fleet of electric vehicles the world has eve

35、r seen, a fleet that is still operating. In the 1950s, the fleet grew to a total of about 30,000, a number kept fairly stable in the decades to come. It was an ideal fleet for electric driving. The vans were noiseless wh

36、en delivering milk early in the morning, and they could be parked in common garages for recharging during the night (Westbrook, 2001; Anderson and Anderson, 2005). Actually, the British started their renaissance of the e

37、lectric vehicle well before the war broke out, in the mid 1930s, mainly due to the availability of large amounts of cheap electricity. By 1940 they had more than 6000 electric vans run- ning, mostly used for milk and bre

38、ad deliveries. To enhance the use of electric vehicles further, British authorities had dur- ing the war made strong marketing campaigns, very similar to the advertising campaigns shown some thirty years earlier. All the

39、 advantages of electric driving were starkly emphasised; they had a long life and would help to conserve natural re- sources; they were simple and cheap to operate; they required less maintenance, and hills were not a pr

40、oblem as they made recharging possible when driving downhill. The British were certainly striving to compete with the Germans in promoting electric driving. When it came to long life it was, however, not a success. Setti

41、ng aside the milk van story, the production and use of electric cars would more or less completely fade out again during the first post-war years (Anderson and Anderson, 2005). In Japan, the post-war period was of course

42、 rather problem- atic with severe shortages and rationing of gasoline. This initiated the production of an electric cardTama Electric Powercardwhich would become quite popular. It had an im- pressive range of about 150 k

43、m and a driving speed of almost 60 km/h. But when gasoline became readily available in 1952, the production company turned to ICE cars. From this period, we also know of several hybrid gasolineeelectric cars, both in Fra

44、nce and the USA. In the case of the USA, even a hybrid sports car was produced, but only for a few years (Wakefield, 1994).4. From Silent Spring to silent carsIn the 1960s, a quite new debate turned up. Rachel Carson (19

45、63) published her book Silent Spring in 1962. This book is by many considered to represent the real advent of the modern environmental debate, as we have experienced it since then. Carson focused on environmental polluti

46、on problems, mostly caused by pesticide chemicals used in agriculture. But in parallel, a separate debate took place on air pollution problems in larger cities. It comprised issues such as lead pollution, emissions of fi