[雙語翻譯]男女平等外文翻譯--男女平等是否促進社會信任？實證分析（英文）

1、Does Gender Equality Promote Social Trust? An Empirical AnalysisSEO-YOUNG CHO*Philipps-University of Marburg, GermanySummary. — Fairness is an important factor that promotes social trust by reducing social heterogeneity

2、and gaps between people. This paper empirically investigates whether gender equality—fairness between men and women—increases social trust by analyzing a global sample from the World Values Survey. The findings show that

3、 gender discriminatory values negatively affect the trust levels of both men and women, while women’s status in labor, education, and political dimensions is not a significant determinant. These results indicate that val

4、ues regarding gender equality (fair values) are arguably more important to social trust than the actual socioeconomic conditions of women (fair conditions). Furthermore, the effect of gender equality varies across countr

5、ies with different levels of gender endowments. Gender-related values are an important factor of social trust in countries where gender equality is relatively high, but its effect is minimal in countries with greater gen

6、der discrimination. This finding implies that fairness is a more essential social value in countries where equal- ity is already established. Finally, the empirical investigation finds a stronger effect of gender equalit

7、y on men than on women—especially in high gender-equal countries. This result contradicts the initial expectation that gender equality influences women more significantly and thus, the effect should be larger for them. A

8、 possible explanation for this result is that gender equality establishes a more trustworthy environment of men which increases their trust level more. ? 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Key words — social trust, g

9、ender equality, fairness, values survey, worldwide1. INTRODUCTIONInformal institutions—particularly social trust—are impor- tant to promote economic growth, as social trust can supple- ment or substitute formal instituti

10、ons in maintaining law and order as well as keeping promises between individuals. In the literature, many socioeconomic factors were examined and proposed as determinants of trust—such as income, edu- cation, formal inst

11、itutions, culture, and history (see Alesina Algan Glaeser, Laibson, Scheinkman, Nunn Glaeser et al., 2000). This finding leads to the argument that gender equality is a driving force of promoting social trust. In fac

12、t, empirical evidence supporting the role of women’s empowerment in the enhance- ment of trust and social capital is well-documented—Janssens (2010) sites the effects of women’s empowerment programs on social capital in

13、Indian villages; Molinas (1998) references women’s participation and cooperation in Latin America; and Westermann, Ashby, and Pretty (2005) document women’s participation in resource management and social capital in 20 c

14、ountries. These studies focused on women’s par- ticipation in micro-level programs that stimulated social capi- tal in country-specific contexts.In this paper, the relationship between gender equality and social trust is

15、 further evaluated by considering various dimen- sions of gender equality on a global level. Specifically, gender equality is measured by gender-related values (the percent of respondents who answered ‘I think that men s

16、hould have more rights to a job than women’ in the World Values Survey), as well as by socioeconomic conditions provided for women (female education, employment, and political representation). By exploiting different gen

17、der indicators, this paper investi- gates whether the presumed positive relationship between gen- der equality and social trust can be found in different contexts of fairness toward women. For the empirical testing, the

18、World Values Survey (World Values Surveys Association, 2012), which documents data for up to 91 countries during the period between 1995 and 2010, is used. The findings of the investigation suggest that gender discrimina

19、tory values decrease social trust and this effect applies to both male and female trust levels. However, the effect of gender equality differs between countries with varying levels of women’s standing. While gender equal

20、ity is a key determinant of social trust in less discriminatory coun- tries, it does not play a significant role in less equal countries. The positive effect of gender equality indicates that equality reduces social dist

21、ances between people and therefore stimu- lates trust. 1 This is because closing social gaps leads to the fair application of rules throughout society and thus, one can min- imize the risks involved in trusting others an

22、d rely on fair pro- tection if others renege on a promise. With fairness, people are incentivized to trust and cooperate with others instead of con- ducting costly monitoring. In other words, trust is an optimal behavior

23、al choice that is preferred over distrust in environ- ments in which social heterogeneity and discrimination are* The author thanks participants of the Conference on Deep Causes ofEconomic Development at the University o

24、f Utrecht in the Netherlands(2014) for their valuable comments. Also, the author thanks LukasStro ¨msdo ¨rfer and Lucas McCann for their research assistance. Final revision accepted: July 22, 2016.World Develop

25、ment Vol. 88, pp. 175–187, 2016 0305-750X/? 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddevhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.07.019175gender-discrimination in this respect. Also, variation

26、s across countries are quite large. For women, the percent of ‘yes’ responses varies from 0.7 (Sweden) to 86.1 (Egypt) with a stan- dard deviation of 17.92. For men, it ranges between 1.5% (Sweden) and 93.1% (Egypt) and

27、the standard deviation is 22.21. These descriptive statistics suggest not only that more male respondents agree with gender discrimination than female respondents but also that the cross-country variations are larger for

28、 males. In addition to the gender discriminatory values, indicators of socioeconomic conditions that reflect gender equality are further employed. These indicators measure the relative levels of attainments women have ac

29、hieved in comparison to those of men in three important dimensions: education, labor, and political representation. Specifically, these dimensions are quantified by the following ratios: the ratio of female enroll- ment

30、in secondary and university education to males’; the ratio of female labor force participation to males’; and the share of female parliamentary members. These comparative measurements (ratios/share between men and women)

31、 are selected because they better capture gender equality than otherindicators that measure women’s achievements without a com- parison to men’s—such as female enrollment or labor force participation rates. The details o

32、f the descriptive statistics of the indicators used are presented in Appendix A.3. RESEARCH DESIGN(a) HypothesesThe central question of this paper is whether gender equality increases social trust. In order to investigat

33、e this relationship, the following working hypotheses are proposed and empiri- cally tested.H0. Gender equality increases social trust.The above statement provides a baseline hypothesis that predicts a positive effect of

34、 gender equality on social trust. Gender equality ensures that rules are applied equally to both women and men. Such fair environments reduce socialPRITURPER PHLMKDCOL VENSVNSLV ZAF PKANGA ARG ROM POLGEO AZEHUN LTU URY E

35、ST BGD CHL RUS MDA BLR0 10 20 30 40Distance above Median0 5 10 15 20 Distance below MedianTrust Level of WomenPERPHLTURMKDPRICOLVEN SLV ZAFGEO NGA POL ARG SVNROM CHL AZEMDA BGD EST HRV URY BLR PKA LTU BGR0 10 20 30 40Dis

36、tance above Median0 5 10 15 20 Distance below MedianTrust Level of MenFigure 2. Patterns of social trust, by country (1995). Note: The graph represents the distribution of national trust levels around the global median i

37、n 1995 (males and females, respectively). The Y-axis corresponds to yi (distance above median) = median ? trust(i); and the X-axis to xi (distance below median) = trust(N + 1 ? i) ? median. i(country) = {1 . . . N}. The

38、reference line indicates yi = xi (symmetrical distribution). The median values of trust are: 22.2% for males and 23.9% for females. The data is taken from the World Values Survey.DOES GENDER EQUALITY PROMOTE SOCIAL TRUST