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1、<p> 3800英文單詞,1.9萬(wàn)英文字符,中文6650字</p><p> 文章來(lái)源:Kleiner F S. Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History [M]. </p><p><b> 一、英文</b></p><p> A R TB E F O R
2、E H I S T O RY</p><p> Humankind seems to have originated in Africa in the very remote past. From that great continent also comes the earliest evidence of human recognition of abstract images in the natur
3、al environment, if not the first examples of what people generally call “art.” In 1925, explorers of a cave at Makapansgat in South Africa (MAP 15-1) discovered bones of Australopithecus, a predecessor of modern humans w
4、ho lived some three million years ago. Associated with the bones was a waterworn reddish-brown jasp</p><p> Is the Makapansgat pebble art? In modern times, many artists have created works people universally
5、 consider art by removing objects from their normal contexts, altering them, and then labeling them. In 1917, for example, Marcel Duchamp took a ceramic urinal, set it on its side, called it Fountain (FIG. 35-27), and de
6、clared his “ready-made” worthy of exhibition among more conventional artworks. But the artistic environment of the past century cannot be projected into the remote past. For art hist</p><p> PALEOLITHIC ART
7、</p><p> The several millennia following 30,000 BCE saw a powerful outburst of creativity. The works produced by the peoples of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic period (from the Greek paleo, “old,” and lith
8、os, “stone”) are of an astonishing variety. They range from simple shell necklaces to human and animal forms in ivory, clay, and stone to monumental paintings, engravings, and relief sculptures covering the huge wall sur
9、faces of caves. During the Paleolithic period, humankind went beyond the recognitio</p><p><b> Africa</b></p><p> Some of the earliest paintings yet discovered come from Africa, an
10、d, like the treasured pebble in the form of a face found at Makapansgat, the oldest African paintings were portable objects.</p><p> APOLLO 11 CAVE </p><p> Between 1969 and 1972, scientist
11、s working in the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia (MAP 15-1) found seven fragments of stone plaques with paint on them, including four or five recognizable images of animals. In most cases, including the example illustrated her
12、e (FIG. 1-3), the species is uncertain, but the forms are al- ways carefully rendered. One plaque depicts a striped beast, possibly a zebra. The charcoal from the archaeological layer in which the Namibian plaques were
13、found has been dated to arou</p><p> Like every artist in every age in every medium, the painter of the Apollo 11 plaque had to answer two questions before beginning work: What shall be my subject? How shal
14、l I represent it? In Paleolithic art, the almost universal answer to the first question was an animal—bison, mammoth, ibex, and horse were most common. In fact, Paleolithic painters and sculptors depicted humans infreque
15、ntly and men almost never. In equally stark contrast to today’s world, there was also agreement on the best ans</p><p> Western Europe</p><p> Even older than the Namibian painted plaques are
16、 some of the first sculptures and paintings of western Europe (MAP 1-1), although examples of still greater antiquity may yet be found in Africa, bridging the gap between the Makapansgat pebble and the Apollo 11 painted
17、plaques.</p><p> HOHLENSTEIN-STADEL</p><p> One of the earliest sculptures discovered yet is an extraordinary ivory statuette (FIG. 1-4), which may date back as far as 30,000 BCE. It was found
18、 in fragments inside a cave at Hohlen- stein-Stadel in Germany and has been meticulously restored. Carved out of mammoth ivory and nearly a foot tall—a truly huge image for its era—the statuette represents something that
19、 existed only in the vivid imagination of the unknown sculptor who conceived it. It is a human (whether male or female is debated) w</p><p> Art historians are certain, however, that these statuettes were i
20、mportant to those who created them, because manufacturing an ivory figure, especially one a foot tall, was a complicated process. First, a tusk had to be removed from the dead animal by cutting into the ivory where it jo
21、ined the head. The sculptor then cut the tusk to the desired size and rubbed it into its approximate final shape with sandstone. Finally, a sharp stone blade was used to carve the body, limbs, and head, and a stone </
22、p><p> VENUS OF WILLENDORF </p><p> The composite feline-human from Germany is exceptional for the Stone Age. The vast majority of prehistoric sculptures depict either animals or humans. In
23、the earliest art, humankind consists almost exclusively of women as opposed to men, and the painters and sculptors almost invariably showed them nude, although scholars generally assume that during the Ice Age both women
24、 and men wore garments covering parts of their bodies. When archaeologists first discovered Paleolithic statuettes of women,</p><p> One of the oldest and the most famous of the prehistoric female figures i
25、s the tiny limestone figurine of a woman that long has been known as the Venus of Willendorf (FIG. 1-5) after its findspot in Austria. Its cluster of almost ball-like shapes is unusual, the result in part of the sculptor
26、’s response to the natural shape of the stone selected for carving. The anatomical exaggeration has suggested to many that this and similar statuettes served as fertility images. But other Paleolithic stone </p>&
27、lt;p> One thing at least is clear. The Venus of Willendorf sculptor did not aim for naturalism in shape and proportion. As with most Paleolithic figures, the sculptor did not carve any facial features. Here the carv
28、er suggested only a mass of curly hair or, as some re- searchers have recently argued, a hat woven from plant fibers—evidence for the art of textile manufacture at a very early date. In either case, the emphasis is on fe
29、male anatomy. The breasts of the Willen- dorf woman are enormous, far </p><p><b> LAUSSEL </b></p><p> Because precision in dating is impossible for the Paleolithic era, art histor
30、ians usually can be no more specific than assigning a range of several thousand years to each artifact. But probably later in date than the Venus of Willendorf is a female figure (FIG. 1-6) from Laussel in France. The Wi
31、llendorf and Hohlenstein-Stadel figures were sculpted in the round (that is, they are freestanding sculptures). The Laussel woman is one of the earliest relief sculptures known. The sculptor employed a s</p><p
32、> Today the Laussel relief is exhibited in a museum, divorced from its original context, a detached piece of what once was a much more imposing monument. When the relief was discovered, the Laussel woman (who is abou
33、t 1/2 feet tall, more than four times larger than the Willendorf statuette) was part of a great stone block that measured about 140 cubic feet. The carved block stood in the open air in front of a Paleolithic rock shelt
34、er. Rock shelters were a common type of dwelling for early humans,</p><p> After chiseling out the female form and incising the details with a sharp burin, the Laussel sculptor applied red ocher, a naturall
35、y colored mineral, to the body. (The same color is also preserved on parts of the Venus of Willendorf.) Contrary to modern misconceptions about ancient art, stone sculptures were frequently painted in antiquity. The Laus
36、sel woman has the same bulbous forms as the earlier Willendorf figurine, with a similar exaggeration of the breasts, abdomen, and hips. The head is o</p><p> LE TUC D’AUDOUBERT </p><p> Paleo
37、lithic sculptors sometimes created reliefs by building up forms out of clay rather than by cutting into stone blocks or stone walls. Sometime 12,000 to 17,000 years ago in the low-ceilinged circular space at the end of
38、 a succession of cave chambers at Le Tuc d’Audoubert, a master sculptor modeled a pair of bison (FIG. 1-7) in clay against a large, irregular freestanding rock. The two bison, like the much older painted animal (FIG. 1-3
39、) from the Apollo 11 Cave, are in strict profile. Each </p><p> LA MADELEINE </p><p> As already noted, sculptors fashioned ivory mammoth tusks into human and animal (FIG. 1-4) forms from very
40、 early times. Prehistoric carvers also used antlers as a sculptural medium, even though it meant they were forced to work on a very small scale. The broken spearthrower (FIG. 1-8) in the form of a bi- son found at La Mad
41、eleine in France is only four inches long and was carved from reindeer antler. The sculptor incised lines into the bison’s mane using a sharp burin. Compared to the bison at </p><p><b> ALTAMIRA </
42、b></p><p> The works examined here thus far, whether portable or fixed to rocky outcroppings or cave walls, are all small. They are dwarfed by the “herds” of painted animals that roam the cave walls of s
43、outhern France and northern Spain, where some of the most spectacular prehistoric art has been discovered (see “Paleolithic Cave Painting,” page 20). The first examples of cave paintings were found accidentally by an ama
44、teur archaeologist in 1879 at Altamira, Spain. Don Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola was explor</p><p> The bison at Altamira are 13,000 to 14,000 years old, but the painters of Paleolithic Spain approached the pr
45、oblem of representing an animal in essentially the same way as the painter of the Namibian stone plaque (FIG. 1-3), who worked in Africa more than 10,000 years earlier. Every one of the Altamira bison is in profile, whet
46、her alive and standing or curled up on the ground (probably dead, although this is disputed; one suggestion is that these bison are giving birth). To maintain the profile </p><p> Modern critics often refer
47、 to the Altamira animals as a “group” of bison, but that is very likely a misnomer. In FIG. 1-9, the several bison do not stand on a common ground line (a painted or carved baseline on which figures appear to stand in pa
48、intings and reliefs), nor do they share a common orientation. They seem almost to float above viewers’ heads, like clouds in the sky. And the dead(?) bison are seen in an “aerial view,” while the others are seen from a p
49、osition on the ground. The paintin</p><p> PECH-MERLE That the paintings did have meaning to the Paleolithic peoples who made and observed them cannot, however, be doubted. In fact, signs consisting of chec
50、ks, dots, squares, or other arrangements of lines often accompany the pictures of animals. Representations of human hands also are common. At Pech-Merle in France, painted hands accompany representations of spotted horse
51、s (FIG. 1-10). These and the majority of painted hands at other sites are “negative;” that is, the painter placed one</p><p> The mural (wall) paintings at Pech-Merle also allow some in- sight into the reas
52、on certain subjects may have been chosen for a specific location. One of the horses (at the right in FIG. 1-10) may have been inspired by the rock formation in the wall surface resembling a horse’s head and neck. Old Sto
53、ne Age painters and sculptors frequently and skillfully used the caves’ naturally irregular surfaces to help give the illusion of real presence to their forms. Many of the Altamira bison (FIG. 1-9), f</p><p>
54、;<b> LASCAUX </b></p><p> Perhaps the best-known Paleolithic cave is that at Lascaux, near Montignac, France. It is extensively decorated, but most of the paintings are hundreds of feet from an
55、y entrance, far removed from the daylight. The largest painted area at Lascaux is the so-called Hall of the Bulls (FIG. 1-11), although not all of the animals depicted are bulls. Many are represented using colored silhou
56、ettes, as at Altamira (FIG. 1-9) and on the Apollo 11 plaque (FIG. 1-3). Others— such as the great bull at the ri</p><p> Another feature of the Lascaux paintings deserves attention. The bulls there show a
57、convention of representing horns that has been called twisted perspective or a composite view, because viewers see the heads in profile but the horns from the front. Thus, the painter’s approach is not strictly or consis
58、tently optical (seen from a fixed view- point). Rather, the approach is descriptive of the fact that cattle have two horns. Two horns are part of the concept “bull.” In strict optical- perspective</p><p> P
59、erhaps the most perplexing painting (FIG. 1-13) in the Paleolithic caves of Europe is deep in a well shaft at Lascaux, where man (as opposed to woman) makes one of his earliest appearances in prehistoric art. At the left
60、, and moving to the left, is a rhinoceros, rendered with all the skilled attention to animal detail customarily seen in cave art. Beneath its tail are two rows of three dots of uncertain significance. At the right is a b
61、ison, also facing left but more schematically painted, prob</p><p><b> 二、譯文</b></p><p><b> 史前藝術(shù)</b></p><p> 在很久很久以前,人類(lèi)似乎起源于非洲。在這個(gè)偉大的大陸上,我們也從自然環(huán)境中的抽象的人體圖像中
62、找到了最早證據(jù),這不是人們通常所說(shuō)的“藝術(shù)”的第一個(gè)例子。1925,有探險(xiǎn)家在南非的一個(gè)名為馬卡潘斯蓋洞穴中(圖15-1)發(fā)現(xiàn)了南方古猿的骨頭,南方古猿是人們?nèi)偃f(wàn)年前的祖先。與這骨頭相關(guān)的是紅棕色碧石--臉形水蝕卵石(圖1-2),它的外形與人的面孔驚人的相似。這種鐵礦石的最近的來(lái)源距離山洞20英里遠(yuǎn)。這個(gè)猿人躲在馬卡潘斯蓋空穴巖屋下,肯定注意到了河床上的卵石,對(duì)卵石上的臉型感到敬畏,就把它帶回去保管。</p><p
63、> 馬卡潘斯蓋特卵石是藝術(shù)嗎?在現(xiàn)代,許多藝術(shù)家通過(guò)從正常環(huán)境中分離一樣事物,然后進(jìn)行改變,并貼上相應(yīng)的標(biāo)簽,從而創(chuàng)造了人們普遍意義上的藝術(shù)作品。例如,馬塞爾·杜尚把找了一個(gè)陶瓷小便器,并署名,稱(chēng)它為《泉》(圖35-27),并宣稱(chēng)他“現(xiàn)成”的作品比傳統(tǒng)的藝術(shù)品更有價(jià)值。但是上個(gè)世紀(jì)的藝術(shù)環(huán)境不能反應(yīng)遙遠(yuǎn)的過(guò)去的藝術(shù)環(huán)境。藝術(shù)歷史學(xué)家宣布的已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)的如馬卡潘斯蓋特卵石之類(lèi)的“藝術(shù)品”,它一定是人類(lèi)所修飾過(guò)的,而不僅僅是大
64、自然的創(chuàng)作。事實(shí)上,有證據(jù)表明,(極少證據(jù)例外),直到三百萬(wàn)年后的公元前30000年,在歐洲北部的大部分地區(qū)仍處于冰河時(shí)代,周?chē)急槐ǜ采w時(shí),人類(lèi)已經(jīng)開(kāi)始有意識(shí)的雕塑和繪畫(huà)。這是歷史上真正的藝術(shù)的開(kāi)端。</p><p><b> 舊石器時(shí)代的藝術(shù)</b></p><p> 幾千年后的公元前30000年爆發(fā)的一場(chǎng)創(chuàng)造力大革命。這些舊石器時(shí)代的人所創(chuàng)造的作品差異很大
65、。它們的范圍包括簡(jiǎn)單的貝殼項(xiàng)鏈,人和動(dòng)物牙齒,粘土,石頭,巨大的畫(huà)作,雕刻,覆蓋巨大的洞穴壁面的浮雕。在舊石器時(shí)代,人類(lèi)已經(jīng)開(kāi)始能辨別出自然中人與動(dòng)物的形狀,(從字面上看,呈現(xiàn)出了可觀察到的在不同的和替代的形式)。這是一個(gè)偉大的成就。</p><p><b> 非洲</b></p><p> 一些最古老的畫(huà)來(lái)自非洲,像在馬卡潘斯蓋特洞穴發(fā)現(xiàn)的珍貴的人臉卵石一樣,古
66、老的非洲畫(huà)像都是方便攜帶的。</p><p><b> 阿婆羅11號(hào)洞穴</b></p><p> 1969--1972年間,在納米比亞工作的科學(xué)家在阿婆羅11號(hào)洞穴(圖15-1)發(fā)現(xiàn)七的塊畫(huà)著畫(huà)的石板,其中包括四個(gè)或五個(gè)可以識(shí)別的動(dòng)物的畫(huà)像。在大多數(shù)情況下,包括這里所示的例子(圖1-3),所畫(huà)的物種是不確定的,但形式總是精心呈現(xiàn)。有一個(gè)石板上描繪了一頭身上有條紋
67、的野獸,可能是斑馬。發(fā)現(xiàn)納米比亞發(fā)現(xiàn)石板的考古層的碳足跡可以一直追溯到公元前23000年。</p><p> 跟每個(gè)世紀(jì)每個(gè)階段的每個(gè)藝術(shù)家一樣,阿婆羅11號(hào)的畫(huà)家也必須回答兩個(gè)問(wèn)題,然后才開(kāi)始工作:什么是我的主題?我該如呈現(xiàn)它?在舊石器時(shí)代藝術(shù)中,第一個(gè)問(wèn)題的答案是幾乎都是動(dòng)物——野牛、猛犸象、山羊和馬是最常見(jiàn)的。事實(shí)上,舊石器時(shí)代的畫(huà)家和雕塑家很少描繪人類(lèi),從不描繪男性。與當(dāng)今世界形成鮮明對(duì)比的是,第二個(gè)問(wèn)
68、題的最佳答案也是一致的。無(wú)論是舊石器時(shí)代、中石器時(shí)代和新石器時(shí)代的藝術(shù)家描繪的動(dòng)物當(dāng)時(shí)都是一致的——嚴(yán)格的側(cè)視圖。側(cè)視圖是可以看清動(dòng)物頭部,身體,尾巴和四條腿的唯一視圖。一個(gè)正面的視圖會(huì)掩蓋大部分的身體,四分之三的視圖將不會(huì)充分顯示正面或側(cè)面。只有側(cè)視圖完全展現(xiàn)了動(dòng)物的形狀。這就是石器時(shí)代畫(huà)家選擇了側(cè)視圖的原因。很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間之后,藝術(shù)家才開(kāi)始重視“多樣化”或“獨(dú)創(chuàng)性”,無(wú)論是在主題選擇或是表達(dá)方面。這些是藝術(shù)史上相當(dāng)現(xiàn)代的觀念。最早的畫(huà)
69、家的目的是創(chuàng)造一個(gè)令人信服的主題的圖像,創(chuàng)造一種可以捕捉動(dòng)物本質(zhì)的圖案定義,只有側(cè)視圖了滿(mǎn)足他們的需要。</p><p><b> 西歐</b></p><p> 比納米比亞石版畫(huà)還要早一些的是西歐的雕刻和繪畫(huà)(圖1-1),雖然更古老的古人畫(huà)作可能是在非洲被發(fā)現(xiàn)的,連接了馬卡潘斯蓋特卵石和阿波羅11號(hào)石板話。</p><p><b&g
70、t; 獅子人牙雕</b></p><p> 人們發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早的雕像是一個(gè)特別的象牙雕像(圖1-4),可追溯到公元前30000年。人們?cè)诘聡?guó)的一個(gè)洞穴內(nèi)發(fā)現(xiàn)了碎片,現(xiàn)在碎片已經(jīng)被精心修復(fù)。這個(gè)雕像是雕刻在猛犸象牙上的,高一英尺。在那個(gè)時(shí)代是真正的巨大的圖像。這個(gè)小雕像代表了一些只有想象力豐富的雕刻家才會(huì)孕育出的事物。這是一個(gè)有著貓的頭的人(無(wú)論男性或女性)。這種動(dòng)物頭和人體的復(fù)合生物(反之亦然)在古代
71、近東和埃及的藝術(shù)中是常見(jiàn)的(例如,圖2-10,3-36)。在這些文明中,幸存的文物通常允許歷史學(xué)家給他們命名,并描述他們?cè)诋?dāng)代宗教和神話中的作用。但是對(duì)于石器時(shí)代的創(chuàng)作,沒(méi)有人知道他們的創(chuàng)造者在想什么。有時(shí)動(dòng)物頭人身的人在舊石器時(shí)代藝術(shù)中被稱(chēng)為巫師或被描述為帶著口罩的巫師。同樣,舊石器時(shí)代的人頭動(dòng)物身的動(dòng)物也被認(rèn)為是假扮成動(dòng)物的人。在石器時(shí)代,沒(méi)有任何書(shū)面的說(shuō)明,文字出現(xiàn)之前的史前時(shí)代,歷史研究人員只能推測(cè)一個(gè)雕像的目的與功能,如獅子人
72、牙雕。</p><p> 然而藝術(shù)歷史學(xué)家可以確定的是,這些雕像對(duì)于創(chuàng)造者來(lái)說(shuō)是非常重要的,因?yàn)橹圃煲粋€(gè)象牙雕像,尤其是一英尺高的雕像,是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的過(guò)程。首先,必須從死去的動(dòng)物身上割下一根象牙。然后雕刻家把象牙切割成所需的大小,并和砂巖一起揉成大致的最終形狀。最后,用鋒利的石刀來(lái)雕刻雕像身體,四肢和頭,用一塊石頭雕刻刀(尖頭刻工具)切割(刮擦)雕像的表面,就像獅子人牙雕的胳膊。所有這一切可能需要至少幾天的熟練工
73、作。</p><p><b> 沃爾道夫的維納斯</b></p><p> 來(lái)自德國(guó)的獅子人牙雕是石器時(shí)代杰出的作品。絕大多數(shù)史前雕塑描繪的是動(dòng)物或人類(lèi)。在最早的藝術(shù)中,人類(lèi)雕塑幾乎完全都是女性,而不是男人,畫(huà)家和雕塑家?guī)缀蹩偸浅尸F(xiàn)她們的裸體,盡管學(xué)者們普遍認(rèn)為,在冰河時(shí)期,女人和男人都穿著遮擋身體的衣服。當(dāng)考古學(xué)家首次發(fā)現(xiàn)舊石器時(shí)代的女性小雕像時(shí),他們稱(chēng)其為“維
74、納斯”,古希臘神話中象征愛(ài)與美的女神,通常被藝術(shù)家以裸體的形式呈現(xiàn)(圖5-62)。這個(gè)稱(chēng)號(hào)是不恰當(dāng)?shù)模?會(huì)誤導(dǎo)人們。舊石器時(shí)代的形象代表了神,這一觀點(diǎn)是值得懷疑的。</p><p> 最古老也是最著名的史前女性形象是在奧地利發(fā)現(xiàn)的一個(gè)小的石灰石女性雕像,被稱(chēng)為是沃爾道夫的維納斯(圖1-5)。該雕象身上的球狀部分是不尋常的,是雕塑家遵循選擇雕刻的是石頭自然形狀的結(jié)果。結(jié)構(gòu)上的夸張表現(xiàn)顯示了,這個(gè)雕象以及類(lèi)似的雕像
75、都是生育有關(guān)的雕象。但其他舊石器時(shí)代雕象中,有更苗條的女性的存在,這些圖像的含義和其他的舊石器時(shí)代藝術(shù)一樣難以捉摸。然而,在舊石器時(shí)代女性數(shù)量比男性多的這個(gè)優(yōu)勢(shì)似乎表明了當(dāng)時(shí)社會(huì)對(duì)婦女的關(guān)注,她們的生育能力保證了物種的生存。</p><p> 至少有一件事是肯定的。維倫多爾夫雕塑家的目標(biāo)并不是在形狀和比例上的自然主義。與大多數(shù)舊石器時(shí)代一樣,雕塑家沒(méi)有雕刻任何面部特征。在這里,雕刻著只刻畫(huà)了大量卷曲的頭發(fā),或者
76、正如一些研究人員爭(zhēng)論的那樣,那只是一種由植物纖維編織而成的帽子,早期的紡織業(yè)的藝術(shù)中提供的證據(jù)。不管哪種情況下,重點(diǎn)都是女性骨骼。沃爾道夫婦女的乳房是巨大的,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于在他們的小前臂和手。雕刻師還煞費(fèi)苦心地把刻畫(huà)出了恥骨三角的輪廓。在其他早期雕像作品中,雕塑家往往忽略了這些細(xì)節(jié),導(dǎo)致一些學(xué)者質(zhì)疑這些生育圖像的性質(zhì)。無(wú)論這些雕像的目的是什么,雕刻者的意圖似乎是展示代表女性而不是確定的女人的形態(tài)。</p><p>&l
77、t;b> 勞塞爾的維納斯</b></p><p> 因?yàn)樵谂f石器時(shí)代,不可能精確的計(jì)時(shí),所以藝術(shù)史學(xué)家通常更傾向于按千年劃分一個(gè)石器雕刻的年代。但緊跟沃爾道夫維也納之后的是一個(gè)女性人物(圖1-6),來(lái)自法國(guó)的勞塞爾的維納斯。沃爾道夫的維也納和獅子人牙雕是雕刻在圓形工具上的(也就是說(shuō),他們是獨(dú)立的雕塑)。勞塞爾的維納斯是有名的浮雕。雕刻家用一把石鑿切入一塊大巖石的相對(duì)平坦的表面,并以其為背景創(chuàng)
78、造出一幅圖像。</p><p> 如今勞塞爾雕像在博物館展出,脫離了原來(lái)的背景,它曾經(jīng)是一個(gè)獨(dú)立塊的宏偉的紀(jì)念碑。當(dāng)這個(gè)浮雕被發(fā)現(xiàn)的時(shí)候,勞塞爾維納斯(高約0.5英尺,是沃爾道夫維納斯的四倍大)只是140立方英尺的巨大石塊的一部分。這塊被雕刻的巖石矗立在舊石器時(shí)代的巖屋的前面。巖屋是一種常見(jiàn)的早期人類(lèi)住宅,有沿著洞穴口搭建的木屋。勞塞爾浮雕是舊石器時(shí)代的許多露天藝術(shù)中的一個(gè)例子。早期的人類(lèi)都僅僅居住在洞穴中和所
79、有舊石器時(shí)代的藝術(shù)都來(lái)自神秘的黑暗的洞穴, 這些流行的觀念是錯(cuò)誤的。</p><p> 在雕琢出女性形態(tài)和雕像細(xì)節(jié)之后,勞賽爾雕塑家將天然彩色礦物紅赭石涂抹到雕像身體上(這個(gè)顏色在沃爾道夫維納斯的身體上也有)。與現(xiàn)在人們對(duì)古代藝術(shù)觀念的誤解相反,在古代雕刻家常常在石雕上繪畫(huà)。勞賽爾維納斯與沃爾道夫維納斯有相同的球狀部分,胸部,腹部和臀部非??鋸埫黠@。雕像的頭部沒(méi)什么特色,但是手臂占據(jù)了重要的作用。左手臂在腹部位
80、置,將人們的注意力吸引到了雕像的中間部位。右手高高舉起,手上舉著的被大多數(shù)學(xué)者認(rèn)為是野牛角。角的意義是還在爭(zhēng)辯中。</p><p><b> 蒂多杜貝爾</b></p><p> 舊石器時(shí)代的雕塑家有時(shí)用粘土來(lái)堆砌浮雕,而不是在石塊或石墻上雕刻。12000-17000年前,在蒂多杜貝爾洞穴的這個(gè)低矮的圓形空間中有一場(chǎng)生命的傳承即將結(jié)束,以為雕刻大師依靠著一塊巨大的
81、不規(guī)則的獨(dú)立巖石,用粘土雕刻了一對(duì)野牛(圖1-7)。這兩頭野牛,和阿婆羅11號(hào)空穴里的動(dòng)物一樣,都是嚴(yán)格的側(cè)面描寫(xiě)。每頭野牛大約有兩英尺長(zhǎng)。他們是已知的最大的舊石器時(shí)代雕像。雕刻家把粘土從洞穴的其他地方運(yùn)來(lái),用手工把它塑造成動(dòng)物的整體形狀。然后這些藝術(shù)家用鏟子形狀的工具將雕像表面弄平滑,最后用手指塑造出眼睛,鼻孔,嘴巴和鬃毛。這兩個(gè)動(dòng)物身上的裂縫是在干燥過(guò)程中造成的,可能是在雕塑完成后的幾天內(nèi)出現(xiàn)的。</p><p&
82、gt;<b> 瑪?shù)律徑烫?lt;/b></p><p> 人們已經(jīng)注意到,在很早以前,雕刻家將猛犸象象牙制成的人類(lèi)和動(dòng)物(圖1-4)的形狀。鹿角也是史前雕刻的媒介,即使這意味著雕刻家們被迫在一個(gè)非常小的媒介上工作。在法國(guó)的瑪?shù)律徑烫冒l(fā)現(xiàn)的破碎的野牛形狀投矛器(圖1-8)只有四英寸長(zhǎng),是用馴鹿的鹿角雕刻的。雕刻家用鋒利的刻刀雕刻出野牛的鬃毛。相比于在蒂多杜貝爾的野牛,這里的雕刻更為詳細(xì),雕刻延
83、伸到了角,眼,耳,鼻,口,臉上的毛。特別有趣的是,雕刻家決定呈現(xiàn)出一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)身的野牛。馴鹿角的小尺寸可能是這個(gè)節(jié)省空間的設(shè)計(jì)的原因。不管原因是什么,值得注意的是,雕塑家把野牛的脖子整整轉(zhuǎn)了180度,以保持嚴(yán)格的側(cè)面描繪,舊石器時(shí)代的雕塑家和畫(huà)家堅(jiān)持側(cè)面描繪是為了清晰和完整的呈現(xiàn)創(chuàng)作。</p><p><b> 阿爾塔米拉洞窟</b></p><p> 研究到目前為止,
84、無(wú)論是便攜式的或固定在露巖或洞穴的墻壁上的作品都是很小的。在法國(guó)南部和西班牙北部發(fā)現(xiàn)的洞穴墻壁上最為壯觀的史前藝術(shù)——“成群”的動(dòng)物“相比,這些顯得非常渺?。ㄒ?jiàn)《舊石器時(shí)代洞穴繪畫(huà)》第20頁(yè))。第一個(gè)洞穴繪畫(huà)是業(yè)余考古學(xué)家馬塞利諾·德桑圖奧拉在1879年偶然發(fā)現(xiàn)的,位于西班牙阿爾塔米拉洞窟。馬塞利諾·德桑圖奧拉當(dāng)時(shí)正在探索一個(gè)洞穴,在那里他已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)燧石和被雕刻的骨頭的樣本。當(dāng)他進(jìn)入到一個(gè)離洞口85英尺深地方時(shí),他的小
85、女兒瑪麗亞和他在一起。因?yàn)橹車(chē)黄诎?,充滿(mǎn)了碎片的洞穴頂部離離父親的頭只有幾英尺高,孩子因?yàn)樯砀叩脑?,首先發(fā)現(xiàn)了洞穴頂部模糊的野獸的輪廓(圖1-9,大約60英尺長(zhǎng)的一幅個(gè)很大的畫(huà))。馬塞利諾·德桑圖奧拉確信他發(fā)現(xiàn)的在洞穴頂部的野牛畫(huà)可以追溯到史前時(shí)代。然而,專(zhuān)業(yè)的考古學(xué)家卻懷疑這些作品的真實(shí)性,并在1880年史前考古學(xué)的里斯本會(huì)議上,他們正式聲明這些畫(huà)是偽造的。但到了19世界末,其他有壁畫(huà)的洞穴已被發(fā)現(xiàn),而且有些洞穴的礦物
86、儲(chǔ)量需要累積上千年才可以形成。這終于說(shuō)服了懷疑論者。第一批畫(huà)作的年代遠(yuǎn)比他們所想象的要遙遠(yuǎn)得多。</p><p> 在阿爾塔米拉洞窟的野牛壁畫(huà)大約是13000-14000年前的,但舊石器時(shí)代的西班牙畫(huà)家在動(dòng)物呈現(xiàn)上遇到的問(wèn)題實(shí)際上和比他們?cè)?0000年生活在納米比亞石板的畫(huà)家遇到的問(wèn)題是一樣的(圖1-3)。阿爾塔米拉的野牛,無(wú)論活著的,站立的或蜷縮在地上的(可能已經(jīng)死了,這個(gè)說(shuō)法一直飽受爭(zhēng)議;還有一個(gè)說(shuō)法是,這
87、些野牛正在生小牛),都是只有一個(gè)側(cè)面輪廓圖。為了保持后面那種情況下的側(cè)面輪廓描寫(xiě),畫(huà)家必須采取從上往下俯視動(dòng)物,而不是一個(gè)人站在地面上以平視的角度去觀察。 </p><p> 現(xiàn)代批評(píng)家經(jīng)常提到阿爾塔米拉洞窟的動(dòng)物是一“群”野牛,但那很可能是錯(cuò)誤的。在圖1-9中,幾頭野牛并沒(méi)有站在同一個(gè)地平線上(繪畫(huà)或雕刻的基線,在這個(gè)基線下,動(dòng)物似乎站在繪畫(huà)和浮雕里),他們也沒(méi)有一個(gè)共同的方向。他們看起來(lái)像是漂浮在觀察者的頭
88、頂,就像天空中的云朵。死去的(?)野牛就像在觀察者的“鳥(niǎo)瞰”視線中,而另一些野牛則是從地面上看到的。這幅畫(huà)沒(méi)有背景,沒(méi)有底色,沒(méi)有地方的指示。舊石器時(shí)代的畫(huà)家一點(diǎn)也不關(guān)心動(dòng)物的位置,也不關(guān)心它們是如何相互聯(lián)系的。相反,他們就像是一些獨(dú)立的野牛畫(huà)像在裝飾著洞穴頂部,也許這些野牛是在不同的時(shí)間畫(huà)的,而且每個(gè)都盡可能完整和翔實(shí),然而他們的意義仍然是一個(gè)謎(參見(jiàn)“舊石器時(shí)代的藝術(shù)”第21頁(yè))</p><p><b&
89、gt; 派許摩爾洞穴 </b></p><p> 毋庸置疑的是,這些畫(huà)對(duì)舊石器時(shí)代的觀察和創(chuàng)造者來(lái)說(shuō)是有意義的。事實(shí)上,由勾、圓、方格或其他線條組成的標(biāo)志常常出現(xiàn)在動(dòng)物的圖畫(huà)中。手繪畫(huà)作也很普遍。在法國(guó)派許摩爾洞穴有手繪斑點(diǎn)馬(圖 1-10)。這些和在其他遺址發(fā)現(xiàn)的大多數(shù)手繪畫(huà)都是“消極的”,即畫(huà)家將一只手放在墻上,然后在周?chē)?、吹或吐顏料。?huà)家偶爾用手蘸顏料,然后把它涂抹在墻上,留下一個(gè)“正面”
90、的印記。這些手印也必須有一個(gè)目的。一些研究人員認(rèn)為這些可能是宗教或者是部落成員的“簽名”邪教,不太可能是個(gè)別畫(huà)家的“簽名”。但是和舊石器時(shí)代藝術(shù)的其他創(chuàng)作一樣,他們的意義也是未知的。</p><p> 派許摩爾洞穴的壁(墻)畫(huà)也讓人們觀察到了一些信息,某些動(dòng)物可能在一個(gè)特定的位置被創(chuàng)作。其中一匹馬(在圖1-10的右邊)可能是畫(huà)家被構(gòu)成馬的頭部和頸部的墻壁表面的巖石啟發(fā)而畫(huà)的。舊石器時(shí)代的畫(huà)家和雕塑家經(jīng)常巧妙地使
91、用洞穴自然不規(guī)則的表面,幫助他們的完成實(shí)際的創(chuàng)作。例如,許多的阿爾塔米拉野牛(圖1-9)被畫(huà)在凸出的巖石表面。事實(shí)上,史前學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)野牛和牛幾乎只出現(xiàn)在凸出的表面,而幾乎所有的馬和手都畫(huà)在凹進(jìn)去的表面。這意味著什么,尚未確定。</p><p><b> 法國(guó)拉斯科洞穴</b></p><p> 也許最著名的舊石器時(shí)代洞穴就是在法國(guó)蒙蒂尼亞克附近的拉斯科洞穴。它被廣泛
92、的裝飾了,但大部分的畫(huà)是都距離入口處數(shù)百英尺,遠(yuǎn)離日光。拉斯科最大的畫(huà)區(qū)就是所謂的野牛大廳(圖1-11),雖然不是所有的動(dòng)物都是公牛。和阿爾塔米拉洞窟(圖1-9)和阿婆羅11號(hào)石板(圖1-3)一樣,這里很多形象都是用彩色的輪廓來(lái)表示的。其他的如在圖1-11右側(cè)的大野牛,就像派許摩爾洞穴上斑馬(圖1-10)一樣是單獨(dú)創(chuàng)作的。從拉斯科洞穴的壁畫(huà)上可以發(fā)現(xiàn)兩種在藝術(shù)史中反復(fù)被運(yùn)動(dòng)的找到了繪畫(huà)基本方式。在風(fēng)格和技術(shù)上的這些差異表明,野牛大廳里的
93、動(dòng)物是在不同的時(shí)期畫(huà)的,而且迅速移動(dòng)的獸群這一現(xiàn)代印象可能不是畫(huà)家最初的意圖。在任何情況下,由幾種不同的動(dòng)物組成的“獸群”在向不同的方向移動(dòng)。</p><p> 拉斯科壁畫(huà)的還有一個(gè)特點(diǎn)值得關(guān)注。那里的野牛都有一個(gè)代表性的角,它被稱(chēng)為扭曲透視或合成視圖,因?yàn)橛^眾看到的是側(cè)面的頭部和前面的角。因此,畫(huà)家的方法是不嚴(yán)格的或不是一貫的角度(從一個(gè)固定的點(diǎn)觀察)。相反,該方法是描述了一個(gè)事實(shí)——牛有兩個(gè)角。兩個(gè)角是“牛
94、”的概念的一部分,在嚴(yán)格的光學(xué)透視輪廓圖中,只有一個(gè)角是可見(jiàn)的,但是用這種方式畫(huà)動(dòng)物就意味著它的定義是不完整的。這種扭曲的視角是史前繪畫(huà)中的規(guī)范,但并不普遍。事實(shí)上,在法國(guó)最新發(fā)現(xiàn)的肖維巖洞中的舊石器時(shí)代繪畫(huà)中,畫(huà)家用了一種更自然的方式去呈現(xiàn)角,這引發(fā)了藝術(shù)歷史學(xué)家重新思考許多他們關(guān)于舊石器時(shí)代藝術(shù)的假設(shè)(參見(jiàn)“世界上最古老的畫(huà)?“第22頁(yè))。</p><p> 也許歐洲舊石器時(shí)代洞穴中最令人費(fèi)解的畫(huà)(圖1-1
95、3)是在拉斯科的井狀坑底部的巖石上,在那里男人(而不是女人)開(kāi)始了在史前藝術(shù)最早的創(chuàng)作。在左邊,以及要移動(dòng)到左邊的是一個(gè)犀牛,表現(xiàn)出了通常洞穴藝術(shù)中可以看到的所有的有關(guān)動(dòng)物細(xì)節(jié)的熟練技術(shù)。尾巴下面有兩排不明含義的三個(gè)圓點(diǎn)。右邊是一頭野牛,也是面朝左,但是這是一幅更有系統(tǒng)性的繪畫(huà),可能是另一個(gè)畫(huà)家畫(huà)的。第二個(gè)畫(huà)家仍然成功地描繪了一直站著的憤怒的野牛,它的腸子像沉重的線圈掛在腹部外面。兩個(gè)野獸之間有一個(gè)鳥(niǎo)頭(帶著鳥(niǎo)頭面具面具?)男人(比較獅
96、子人牙雕圖1-4中的貓科頭顱男人)張開(kāi)手臂和只有四根手指的雙手。這個(gè)人被描繪的細(xì)節(jié)比任何動(dòng)物都要少,但是畫(huà)家突出了人物的陰莖,明確了人物的性別。這個(gè)男人的狀態(tài)是模糊的。他是受傷了,死亡了,還是只是向后傾斜,并沒(méi)有受傷?鳥(niǎo)形投擲器和矛是屬于他的嗎?是他還是犀牛嚴(yán)重傷害了野牛,還是不是?如果那個(gè)人真的是在地上的話,那么是哪個(gè)動(dòng)物把他打倒了?這三個(gè)圖像是相關(guān)的嗎?研究人員什么都不能確定,但是如果畫(huà)家把這些畫(huà)放在一起,講述了一個(gè)故事,那么這是一
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