土木工程專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯2篇

1、<p>　　XXXXXXXXX學(xué)院</p><p>　　學(xué)士學(xué)位畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）英語(yǔ)翻譯</p><p>　　課 題 名 稱 英語(yǔ)翻譯 </p><p>　　學(xué) 號(hào) </p><p>　　學(xué) 生

2、 </p><p>　　專(zhuān) 業(yè)、年級(jí) </p><p>　　所 在 院 系 </p><p>　　指 導(dǎo) 教 師 </p&g

3、t;<p>　　選 題 時(shí) 間 </p><p>　　Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced Concrete Behavior</p><p>　　The chief task of the structural engineer is the design of struc

4、tures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that wil

5、l act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlemen<

6、/p><p>　　The fundamental propositions on which the mechanics of reinforced concrete is based are as follows:</p><p>　　The internal forces, such as bending moments, shear forces, and normal and shea

7、r stresses, at any section of a member are in equilibrium with the effect of the external loads at that section. This proposition is not an assumption but a fact, because any body or any portion thereof can be at rest on

8、ly if all forces acting on it are in equilibrium.</p><p>　　The strain in an embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that of the surrounding concrete. Expressed differently, it is assumed that perfect bonding

9、 exists between concrete and steel at the interface, so that no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other. With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking

10、is provided in addition to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.</p><p>　　Cross sections that were plane prior to loading continue to be plan in the member under load. Ac

11、curate measurements have shown that when a reinforced concrete member is loaded close to failure, this assumption is not absolutely accurate. However, the deviations are usually minor.</p><p>　　In view of th

12、e fact the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction of its compressive strength; the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, ar

13、e generally so sorrow as to be hardly visible, they evidently render the cracked concrete incapable of resisting tension stress whatever. This assumption is evidently a simplification of the actual situation because, in

14、fact, concrete prior to cracking, as well as th</p><p>　　The theory is based on the actual stress-strain relation ships and strength properties of the two constituent materials or some reasonable equivalent

15、simplifications thereof. The fact that novelistic behavior is reflected in modern theory, that concrete is assumed to be ineffective in tension, and that the joint action of the two materials is taken into consideration

16、results in analytical methods which are considerably more complex and also more challenging, than those that are adequate for memb</p><p>　　These five assumptions permit one to predict by calculation the per

17、formance of reinforced concrete members only for some simple situations. Actually, the joint action of two materials as dissimilar and complicated as concrete and steel is so complex that it has not yet lent itself to pu

18、rely analytical treatment. For this reason, methods of design and analysis, while using these assumptions, are very largely based on the results of extensive and continuing experimental research. They are modified</p&

19、gt;<p>　　鋼筋混凝土的基本假設(shè)</p><p>　　作為結(jié)構(gòu)工程師的主要任務(wù)是結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)。設(shè)計(jì)是對(duì)一般的結(jié)構(gòu)和特定結(jié)構(gòu)等所有層面的一個(gè)具體的確定，使結(jié)構(gòu)可以被安全地建造，并安全地承受的各種因素的影響，在它的整個(gè)使用壽命中能夠很好的發(fā)揮作用。這些影響主要是來(lái)自承受的負(fù)載和其它受到的因素，以及其他有害的影響如溫度波動(dòng)，基礎(chǔ)下陷的影響或是受到侵蝕的影響。結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)是結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的主要工具之一，在這個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)

20、程中，要做一個(gè)良好的預(yù)測(cè)，得到結(jié)構(gòu)變形的程度，能夠及時(shí)的采取一定的措施去加固。在這個(gè)過(guò)程中要做的最重要的事是：（1）充分的研究這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)，即能夠得到這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)所能承受的極限的結(jié)構(gòu)荷載的大小和強(qiáng)度（2）還有就是變形，了解結(jié)構(gòu)在承受荷載時(shí)變形的程度，出現(xiàn)裂縫的程度。</p><p>　　以上所提到的鋼筋混凝土的力學(xué)基礎(chǔ)的基本主張是：</p><p>　　1、內(nèi)部力量，如彎矩，剪力，承受正常剪應(yīng)力的

21、任何一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)部分，在受外部負(fù)載的影響時(shí)部分的結(jié)構(gòu)是平衡的。這一主張不是一個(gè)假設(shè)，而是一個(gè)事實(shí)，因?yàn)槿魏螜C(jī)構(gòu)或其任何部分在整個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)中受力都是平衡的。</p><p>　　2、一個(gè)嵌入式鋼筋的應(yīng)變與外部具體是相同的。這是假設(shè)混凝土和鋼筋之間存在完美結(jié)合，這樣兩種材料之間沒(méi)有可能發(fā)生滑移。因此，一個(gè)構(gòu)件在變形時(shí)，機(jī)械的連鎖提供自然截面的附著力，所以是非常接近這個(gè)假設(shè)的。</p><p>　　3、

22、在截面那些負(fù)載裝載之前，應(yīng)繼續(xù)在加載的負(fù)載。精確的測(cè)量表明，當(dāng)一個(gè)鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件加載接近失敗時(shí)，這種假設(shè)并非絕對(duì)準(zhǔn)確。但是，通常偏差是輕微的。</p><p>　　4、在鑒于混凝土的抗拉強(qiáng)度比起其抗壓強(qiáng)度差很多，在這一個(gè)構(gòu)件中，肯定會(huì)存在裂縫，雖然這些裂縫在精心設(shè)計(jì)的構(gòu)件中通常是難以見(jiàn)到。這種假設(shè)顯然是實(shí)際情況比較簡(jiǎn)單，因?yàn)槭聦?shí)上，混凝土開(kāi)裂之前，位于混凝土的裂縫處有抵制小幅度的拉應(yīng)力。后來(lái)在鋼筋混凝土梁的抗剪切

23、的討論中，這種特定的假設(shè)有一定的條件和優(yōu)勢(shì)是明顯的，適當(dāng)配合比強(qiáng)度的混凝土可以有發(fā)展的前景的。</p><p>　　5、該理論是基于實(shí)際應(yīng)力應(yīng)變關(guān)系和兩部分組成材料合理的組合產(chǎn)生的等效強(qiáng)度性能。理論的內(nèi)容在實(shí)際生活中體現(xiàn)，將這兩個(gè)材料聯(lián)合使用比那些高彈性材料建造的結(jié)構(gòu)的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)復(fù)雜得多也更具挑戰(zhàn)性。</p><p>　　這五個(gè)假設(shè)能預(yù)測(cè)一些簡(jiǎn)單的情況下鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件。事實(shí)上鋼筋和混凝土這兩

24、個(gè)中同樣復(fù)雜的材料，在一起使用時(shí)不適于純粹的分析處理。由于這個(gè)原因，在結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計(jì)方法和分析使用這些假設(shè)時(shí)，最主要的依據(jù)是廣泛和持續(xù)使用的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究結(jié)果，這些修改和補(bǔ)充檢驗(yàn)的理論可以使鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)變得可以被使用。</p><p>　　Development Tendency and Instructions of Civil Engineering</p><p>　　With the pr

25、ogress in science and technology and engineering development of the practice of the disciplines of Civil Engineering has developed into a broad connotation, many categories, and the structure of complex integrated system

26、. For example, on civil engineering projects built with the use of facilities in terms of functionality, and some interest for residential purposes；Some production activities; some for land, sea and air transport; some f

27、or water utilities; some as a tool for informatio</p><p>　　Civil Sociality are accompanied by the development of human society developed. It reflects the construction of engineering facilities in every histo

28、rical period of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technical development of the face, thus civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness. Ancient times, people will start to build simple ho

29、uses, roads, bridges to meet the needs of easy living and production needs. Later, the people in order to adapt to the war, producti</p><p>　　After the industrial revolution, especially to the 20th century,

30、on the one hand, civil society to put forwards a new demand; on the other hand, are all areas of society for the advancement of Civil Engineering has created favorable conditions. Such as building materials (steel, cemen

31、t) implementation of industrial production, machinery and energy technology, and design theory of progress are provided for the Civil Engineering Materials and technical assurance. Thus this period has been rapid de</

32、p><p>　　Practical Civil Engineering is a highly practical subject. In the early days, through the Engineering Practice of Civil Engineering, sum up successful experiences, especially the lessons learn from the

33、failure of developed. From the beginning the 17th century to Galileo and Newton as the forerunner of modern mechanical and civil engineering practice, and has gradually formed material mechanics, structural mechanics, fl

34、uid mechanics, and rock mechanics, as the basic theory of civil engineering di</p><p>　　The reason why the development of civil engineering technology major with engineering practice rather than by virtue of

35、 scientific experiments and theoretical studies, there are two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated, it is difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and theoretical analy

36、sis. For example, ground-based foundation, tunnels and underground engineering stress and deformation state and its changes over time is still necessary to refer</p><p>　　Technically, economically as well as

37、 building up the unity of the arts people seek the most economical to build an engineering facility is scheduled to meet the needs of users, including the aesthetic requirements. While a project is economic and technical

38、 activities are closely related. Project's economic performance at the outset of the project site, on the overall planning, followed by performance at the design and construction technical. The total investment for p

39、roject construction, the pro</p><p>　　Meet the functional requirements of civil engineering facilities as a space for art, first and foremost through the overall layout of the body itself, the various parts

40、of the size of the ratio of lines, colors, light and shade and the shadow of the surrounding environment, including its coordination with the natural harmony manifested; followed by the adoption of the Additional enginee

41、ring facilities in the local decorative reflected. Engineering facilities and decorative shapes can also show p</p><p>　　Civil Engineering at the long-term practice, people not only to the building housing t

42、he arts to give considerable attention, and achieved outstanding success; but also for other engineering facilities, but also through the choice of different building materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinfo

43、rced concrete, with the natural environment built on very much in the art is beautiful, functional works also very good. Ancient China the Great Wall, much of the modern world on TV and oblique </p><p>　　Civ

44、il Engineering is the construction of various projects and facilities, collectively referred to science and technology. It refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out the investigation, design, cons

45、truction, maintenance and other technical activities; also refers to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground or underground, on land or water, directly or indirectly, for human life , production, mili

46、tary, scientific research services for a variety of engin</p><p>　　Construction material and engineering facilities are basic land, building materials, construction equipment and construction machinery. With

47、 these material conditions, economic and convenient built to meet the people can use requirements and aesthetic requirements, but also to tolerate the various loads security engineering facilities, civil engineering disc

48、iplines are the starting point and destination. </p><p>　　Civil Engineering and three times in the history of the leap </p><p>　　Of Civil Engineering play a critical role in the development of,

49、first of all, as are the material foundation for the civil engineering building materials, followed by the subsequent development of design theory and construction technology. Whenever there is a fine new building materi

50、als, the Civil Engineering will have leap-type development. </p><p>　　People at an early stage can only depend on the soil, wood and other natural materials to create engaging activities, the subsequent emer

51、gence of such artificial brick and tile building materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. Chinese in the eleventh century BC and the early Western Zhou Dynasty to create the

52、 tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile soil better </p><p>　　The appearance of brick and tile people begin extensiv

53、e and substantial in construction of housing and urban flood control projects. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 ~ 19 century, at up to two thousand years, brick and tile has been a c

54、ivil engineering building materials essential for the human civilization has made a great contribution, and even at present is also widely used. </p><p>　　Steel substantial civil engineering applications are

55、 the second leap. 70s start the seventeenth century the use of pig iron, the beginning of the nineteenth century the use of wrought iron construction of bridges and housing, steel this is a prelude to appear.</p>

56、<p>　　From the beginning the middle of the nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out of high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, and the quality of uniform building steel, and the

57、n produce high-strength steel wire, steel cable. Therefore necessary to adapt to the development of the steel structure has been booming. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structures, the new trus

58、s, frames, grid structure, gradually extended the suspension structure,</p><p>　　Building long-span structures from brick, stone structure, wood structure a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 1

59、00 meters of steel structures, a few hundred meters until 1000 meters above modern. So at Dajiang, both shelves starting Bridge, starting at the ground on the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, and even lay

60、ing on the ground under the railway, to create an unprecedented miracle. </p><p>　　In order to meet the needs of the development of steel structure engineering, at the basis of Newton's mechanics, materi

61、al mechanics, structural mechanics, structural design works on the theory came into being. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also the development of civil enginee

62、ring rose from experience become a science, in engineering practice and the basic theories have taken on a new look, which led to more rapid development of civi</p><p>　　The nineteenth century, 20's, mad

63、e of Portland cement, the concrete had come out. Concrete aggregate can be local materials, ease of molding concrete structures, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, uses are restricted. After the mid-nine

64、teenth century, iron and steel production surged, with the attendant emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite building materials, which bear the pulling force of reinforced concrete to bear the pressur

65、e to play their respective </p><p>　　Start from the thirties, there has been pre-stressed concrete. Prestressed concrete structures crack resistance, stiffness and load-bearing capacity, much higher than the

66、 reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Give the appearance of concrete buildings have brought ne

67、w economic, aesthetic form of engineering structures, so that a new civil engineering construction technology </p><p><b>　　土木工程的發(fā)展</b></p><p>　　隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)和工程在土木工程的學(xué)科實(shí)踐中的發(fā)展進(jìn)步，已經(jīng)發(fā)展成為內(nèi)容廣泛，種

68、類(lèi)繁多，綜合系統(tǒng)復(fù)雜的結(jié)構(gòu)。例如，土木工程的項(xiàng)目在建造時(shí)使用的設(shè)備發(fā)揮一定的功能，以及一些體現(xiàn)住宅用途的，對(duì)一些生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)，對(duì)一些地面，海上和空中的運(yùn)輸條件;一些供水設(shè)施，一些作為信息傳輸?shù)墓ぞ?，一些作為能源傳輸?shù)氖侄蔚鹊?。這需要土木工程材料綜合使用各種條件，以滿足不同需求。土木工程已經(jīng)發(fā)展了很多分支，如住宅項(xiàng)目，鐵路工程，道路工程，機(jī)場(chǎng)工程，橋梁工程，隧道和地下工程，特種工程結(jié)構(gòu)，供水，排水工程，對(duì)燃?xì)夤こ?，港口工程，城市供熱水水利工?/p>

69、科學(xué)。一些分支如水利工程，因?yàn)樗麄冏约旱捻?xiàng)目在不斷增加，專(zhuān)業(yè)科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，一直處于分裂狀態(tài)，從作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立的系統(tǒng)，土木工程學(xué)科有針對(duì)性的，但他們?nèi)匀辉诤艽蟪潭壬吓c土木工程共同點(diǎn)。</p><p>　　公民社會(huì)性是人類(lèi)與社會(huì)同時(shí)發(fā)展。它反映在每個(gè)歷史時(shí)期的社會(huì)工程設(shè)施建設(shè)，經(jīng)濟(jì)，文化，科學(xué)，技術(shù)發(fā)展的表面，從而民主的社會(huì)已經(jīng)成為了歷史發(fā)展的見(jiàn)證之一。自古以來(lái)，人們將開(kāi)始建立簡(jiǎn)單的房屋，道路，橋梁，以滿足簡(jiǎn)單的生活

70、和生產(chǎn)需要的需要。后來(lái)，人們?yōu)榱诉m應(yīng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，產(chǎn)生和傳播宗教生活，需要建設(shè)運(yùn)河，宮殿，廟宇和其他建筑物。許多著名的工程在這一歷史時(shí)期表現(xiàn)出的人類(lèi)的創(chuàng)造性。例如，中國(guó)的長(zhǎng)城，都江堰，運(yùn)河，趙州橋，應(yīng)縣木塔，埃及的金字塔，希臘的帕臺(tái)農(nóng)神廟，羅馬的供水工程，科洛西姆圓形競(jìng)技場(chǎng)（羅馬大斗獸場(chǎng)），以及其他許多著名的教堂，宮殿等。</p><p>　　工業(yè)革命后，特別是對(duì)20世紀(jì)，一方面，民主社會(huì)提出的新要求，另一方面，是為土木

71、工程對(duì)全社會(huì)的進(jìn)步創(chuàng)造了有利條件的地區(qū)。例如建材（鋼鐵，水泥）的工業(yè)生產(chǎn)，機(jī)械能源技術(shù)，和設(shè)計(jì)理論的進(jìn)展提供了土木工程材料和技術(shù)保證。因此，土木工程在這一時(shí)期得到了快速發(fā)展。世界各地出現(xiàn)的大量的工業(yè)廠房，高層建筑，核電廠，公路，鐵路，大跨度橋梁，大直徑管道大規(guī)模的現(xiàn)代化，長(zhǎng)隧道，大運(yùn)河，大水壩，大機(jī)場(chǎng)，主要港口和海洋工程等?，F(xiàn)代民主社會(huì)繼續(xù)創(chuàng)造人類(lèi)新的物理環(huán)境，人類(lèi)社會(huì)與現(xiàn)代文明已成為一個(gè)重要組成部分。</p><p

72、>　　實(shí)用土木工程是一個(gè)非常實(shí)用的科目。在初期，通過(guò)土木工程，總結(jié)成功經(jīng)驗(yàn)，特別是工程實(shí)踐的經(jīng)驗(yàn)借鑒了發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的失敗。從一開(kāi)始，17世紀(jì)的伽利略和牛頓成為現(xiàn)代機(jī)械和民用工程實(shí)踐的先導(dǎo)，并已逐步將材料力學(xué)，結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)，流體力學(xué)，巖石力學(xué)作為土木工程學(xué)科的基本理論。逐漸發(fā)展成為一門(mén)科學(xué)土木工程的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。在土木工程的發(fā)展過(guò)程中，工程實(shí)踐和經(jīng)驗(yàn)，往往首先在理論上，在作品里，表明事故是無(wú)法預(yù)見(jiàn)的新因素，引發(fā)了研究和發(fā)展的新理論。到目前為止，許多

73、作品的處理問(wèn)題，在很大程度上仍然依賴于實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)。 </p><p>　　土木工程技術(shù)的發(fā)展比起工程實(shí)踐更傾向于實(shí)驗(yàn)和理論研究是有原因的，兩個(gè)原因是：第一，客觀形勢(shì)的太過(guò)復(fù)雜，很難絕對(duì)的履行實(shí)驗(yàn)室或現(xiàn)場(chǎng)試驗(yàn)和理論分析。例如，地基基礎(chǔ)，隧道和地下工程應(yīng)力和變形狀態(tài)，隨著時(shí)間的變化還需要參考的工程經(jīng)驗(yàn)，分析，判斷。第二個(gè)原因是新的工程實(shí)踐是為了揭示新問(wèn)題。例如，一個(gè)高層建筑，超高層塔桅和大跨橋梁建設(shè)，風(fēng)的阻力，地

74、震工程突出問(wèn)題，以及發(fā)展新的理論和技術(shù)。</p><p>　　為了在技術(shù)，經(jīng)濟(jì)上與建筑物藝術(shù)氣息相互統(tǒng)一人們想要最經(jīng)濟(jì)的建立一個(gè)研發(fā)基地，以滿足用戶的需求，包括審美要求。這是一個(gè)將經(jīng)濟(jì)和技術(shù)活動(dòng)密切的聯(lián)系在一起的項(xiàng)目。這個(gè)項(xiàng)目的經(jīng)濟(jì)表現(xiàn)在項(xiàng)目工地一開(kāi)始就整體規(guī)劃，其次是在設(shè)計(jì)和施工的技術(shù)性能。該項(xiàng)目建設(shè)總投資，項(xiàng)目建成后經(jīng)濟(jì)效益時(shí)期和維修費(fèi)用的使用是衡量經(jīng)濟(jì)的一個(gè)重要的方面。將密切接觸的這些技術(shù)問(wèn)題加以考慮。&l

75、t;/p><p>　　為了滿足民用工程設(shè)施，作為藝術(shù)空間的功能要求，首先是通過(guò)結(jié)構(gòu)本身的總體布局，對(duì)各個(gè)地方的尺寸大小，顏色，光影及周?chē)h(huán)境的陰影，包括其與自然和諧協(xié)調(diào)的表現(xiàn)，然后由其他工程設(shè)施通過(guò)在建筑裝飾反映。裝飾工程設(shè)施和形狀也可以顯示的地方風(fēng)格，民族風(fēng)格和時(shí)間風(fēng)格。</p><p>　　土木工程在長(zhǎng)期實(shí)踐中，不僅對(duì)房屋建筑藝術(shù)給予極大關(guān)注，不但工程項(xiàng)目上，而且也為其他工程設(shè)施取得了杰出

76、成就，通過(guò)不同的建筑材料，如選擇使用石，鋼和鋼筋混凝土與非常多非常好的建造藝術(shù)自然環(huán)境優(yōu)美，功能性的工程。古代中國(guó)的長(zhǎng)城，更是現(xiàn)代世界上經(jīng)典，斜張橋，也是這方面的例子。</p><p>　　土木工程是各種科學(xué)和技術(shù)設(shè)施建設(shè)項(xiàng)目的統(tǒng)稱。它指的是材料的應(yīng)用，設(shè)備和進(jìn)行勘察，設(shè)計(jì)，建造，維修和其他技術(shù)活動(dòng);還有就是建于地面或地下的有關(guān)土地或水的建筑物，直接或間接地對(duì)人類(lèi)生活，生產(chǎn)，軍事，科研服務(wù)的工程設(shè)施給予幫助，例如

77、房屋，公路，鐵路，管道，隧道，橋梁，河渠，堤壩，港口，電廠，機(jī)場(chǎng)，海上平臺(tái)，供水，排水和防護(hù)工程。</p><p>　　施工材料和工程設(shè)施是基本的方面，建筑材料，建筑設(shè)備和建筑機(jī)械。有了這些物質(zhì)條件，可以滿足人們對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)和建設(shè)的使用要求和審美需求，而且還承受各種負(fù)荷安全工程交通便捷，土木工程學(xué)科的出發(fā)點(diǎn)和目的地。</p><p>　　土木工程中的三個(gè)歷史時(shí)代的飛躍</p>&l

78、t;p>　　土木工程發(fā)揮在發(fā)展中起到關(guān)鍵的作用，首先，在設(shè)計(jì)理論和施工技術(shù)以后的發(fā)展之后將土木工程的建筑材料作為物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)。每當(dāng)有一個(gè)較好的新建筑材料，土木工程將有跨越式發(fā)展。</p><p>　　在早期階段，人們只能靠土壤，木材和其他天然材料進(jìn)行建設(shè)活動(dòng)，這種人工磚瓦建材隨后出現(xiàn)，使人類(lèi)第一次打破天然建筑材料的束縛。在公元前11世紀(jì)中國(guó)和西周早期創(chuàng)造出了瓦。在第五世紀(jì)的第一個(gè)磚出現(xiàn)公元前3世紀(jì)，是當(dāng)時(shí)的戰(zhàn)國(guó)

79、墓。磚瓦在力學(xué)性能上優(yōu)于土壤，可以就地取材，易于制造。</p><p>　　使用磚瓦開(kāi)始廣泛出現(xiàn)在住房和建設(shè)重大城市防洪工程。土木工程技術(shù)得到了快速發(fā)展。直到18?19世紀(jì)，在高達(dá)兩千年來(lái)，磚瓦一直是土木工程建筑材料為人類(lèi)文明生活所必需做出了重大貢獻(xiàn)，甚至現(xiàn)在也被廣泛使用。</p><p>　　大量使用鋼鐵是土木工程應(yīng)用的第二次飛躍。從17世紀(jì) 70年代開(kāi)始生鐵被使用，在19世紀(jì)初使用鍛鐵

80、建造橋梁和房屋建筑，鋼鐵，這是一個(gè)前奏出現(xiàn)。</p><p>　　從一開(kāi)始到19世紀(jì)中葉，冶金，冶煉及壓延高強(qiáng)度和壓縮強(qiáng)度的延展性來(lái)統(tǒng)一的評(píng)判建筑鋼材的質(zhì)量，然后生產(chǎn)出高強(qiáng)度鋼絲，鋼絲繩。因此，出現(xiàn)了鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的蓬勃發(fā)展。除了原有梁，拱結(jié)構(gòu)的應(yīng)用，新的桁架，框架，電網(wǎng)結(jié)構(gòu)逐步出現(xiàn)，擴(kuò)大了懸挑結(jié)構(gòu)，結(jié)構(gòu)形式出現(xiàn)百家爭(zhēng)艷的情況。</p><p>　　建設(shè)大跨度結(jié)構(gòu)由磚，石結(jié)構(gòu)，木結(jié)構(gòu)的數(shù)米，幾十米

81、，發(fā)展到一百米，幾百米到一千米以上的現(xiàn)代建筑的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)。因此，從大江，貨架上都大橋，到摩天大樓和高塔式建筑地面開(kāi)始，即使是在地面下鋪設(shè)鐵路都開(kāi)始使用大跨度結(jié)構(gòu)，創(chuàng)造出一種前所未有的奇跡。</p><p>　　為了滿足在牛頓力學(xué)，材料力學(xué)基礎(chǔ)上的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程發(fā)展的需要，結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)，結(jié)構(gòu)的理論設(shè)計(jì)作品應(yīng)運(yùn)而生。建筑機(jī)械，建筑技術(shù)和施工組織設(shè)計(jì)理論也是在土木工程的發(fā)展中從經(jīng)驗(yàn)上升成為科學(xué)，在工程實(shí)踐和基本理論上具有了一種新的

82、面貌，從而導(dǎo)致更多的土木工程的快速發(fā)展。</p><p>　　19世紀(jì)20年代，水泥混合而成的混凝土已出現(xiàn)?；炷凉橇峡梢允钱?dāng)?shù)氐牟牧?，建造易于成型混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)，但混凝土受拉強(qiáng)度非常小，使用受到限制。之后19世紀(jì)中葉，鋼鐵生產(chǎn)大幅增加，隨著這種新型隨之出現(xiàn)了鋼筋混凝土復(fù)合建筑材料，鋼筋承受拉力混凝土承受的壓力，發(fā)揮各自的優(yōu)勢(shì)。自20世紀(jì)初，鋼筋混凝土已被廣泛應(yīng)用于民用工程的領(lǐng)域中使用。</p><