語言學(xué)教程最經(jīng)典筆記(胡壯麟版)

1、WeekWeekWeek1.The1.The1.TheNatureNatureNatureofofofHumanHumanHumanLangLangLangFerdindeSaussure(185711–19132)aSwisslinguistwhoseideaslaidafoundationfmanysignificantdevelopmentsinlinguisticsinthe20thcenturywidelyconsidered

2、tobeoneofthefathersof20thcenturylinguisticssaidin1916:“Languageisasystemofsignsthatexpressideasistherefecomparabletoasystemofwriting…”EdwardSapir(1884119392)aGermanbnAmericananthropologistlinguistsaidin1921:“Languageisap

3、urelyhumannoninstinctivemethodofcommunicatingideasemotiondesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”BernardBloch(1907–1965)GegeTrager(1906–1992)Americanlinguistssaidin1942:“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymea

4、nsofwhichasocialgroupcooperates.“NoamChomsky(1928)anAmericanlinguistsaidin1957:“Aset(finiteinfinite)ofsentenceseachfiniteinlengthconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”R.A.Hall(1911–1997)anAmericanlinguistspecialistintheR

5、omancelanguagessaidin1968:“Theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedalaudityarbitrarysymbols.”Alanguageisthesystemofsymbolswiththemostgeneralmeaningsofanyusedbyhumans.Theperceptib

6、leptionsoflinguisticsymbolsarearticulatygesturestransmittedoneafteranotherusuallyassounds.Theyareusedtocommunicatesteinfmationeventodesignthink.★Thedefinitionthatmostlinguistsagree:Languageisasystemsystemsystemofarbitrar

7、yvocalvocalvocalsymbolssymbolssymbolsusedfhumanhumanhumancommunicationcommunicationcommunication.Inthesenseofourlinguisticstudyitisgenerallyheldthat:Languageisasystem—Itismadeupofunitsfunctionsrelations.Languageisasetofs

8、ymbols—Itinvolvessignswhicharesequencesofsoundsthosecanbetransferredintovocalsigns.Languageisvocal—Inlinguisticslanguageisfirstofallspeechmeaningfulvocalsounds.Languageishuman—Inthestudyofthiscourselanguageisrestrictedto

9、humannaturallanguage.Languageiscommunication—Thechiefpurposeoflanguage.Ofalltheaptitudesbehaviswhichacterizehumanbeingslanguageisthemostuniquelyhumanquitepossiblythemostimptant.Languageisacapacitythatdistinguisheshumanbe

10、ingsfromothercreatures.MajDesignFeaturesofHumanLanguageArbitrarinessWdstheirmeaninghavenoapriiconnection.Wecannottellfromthesoundstructurewhichmeaningisbehindit.DualityofpatterningLanguagehastwolevelsofstructure:atthelev

11、elofsoundatthelevelofmeaningsthesetwolevelsofstructureareindependentofoneanother.ProductivityLanguagehasthecapacitytogenerateaninfinitevarietyofmessagesincludingmessagesthathaveneverbeensaidbefe.DisplacementLanguageisabl

12、etorefertothingsthatareremovedfromthespeakerinbothtimespace.Traditional(Cultural)transmissionLanguageislearnedthroughculturaltransmissiontypicallyfromparentsoldersiblingschildrenbuildtheirgrammaroflanguagebyinferencefrom

13、alimitedsampleofsentences.InterchangabilityIndividualscanbothreceivetransmitmessages.FunctionsofLanguageLanguageasameansofcommunication:CommunicationofinfmationideasfeelingsemotionThecognitivesocialfunctionsoflanguagebeh

14、avi:thefmerreferstothetransmissionofpropositionalfactualinfmationdiscursivereasoning“cogitation”thesecondtotheestablishmentmaintenanceofsocialrappt.※SomedeionsThewellknownmodelofthefunctionsoflanguageintroducedbytheRussi

15、anAmericanlinguistRomanJakobsonin“LinguisticsPoetics“Jakobsonsmodelofthefunctionsoflanguagedistinguishessixelementsfactsofcommunicationthatarenecessaryfcommunicationtooccur:※Brieflythesesixfunctionscanbedescribedasfollow

16、s:(1)thereferentialfunctionisientedtowardthecontext(thedominantfunctioninamessagelikeWaterboilsat100degrees)(2)theemotivefunctionisientedtowardtheaddresser(asintheinterjectionsBah!Oh!)(3)theconativefunctionisientedtoward

17、theaddressee(imperativesapostrophes)(4)thephaticfunctionservestoestablishprolongdiscontinuecommunication[confirmwhetherthecontactisstillthere](asinHello)(5)themetalingualfunctionisusedtoestablishmutualagreementonthecode(

18、fexampleadefinition)(6)thepoeticfunction(e.g.Smurf)putsthefocusonthemessagefitsownsake[Jakobson1960p.356]ThreeBasicFunctionsofLanguage1.Infmativelanguagefunction:essentiallythecommunicationofinfmation.a.Theinfmativefunct

19、ionaffirmsdeniespropositionsasinscience.b.Thisfunctionisusedtodescribethewldreasonaboutit(e.g..whetherastateofaffairsistruefalse).c.Thesesentenceshaveatruthvaluehencetheyareimptantflogic.2.Expressivelanguagefunction:rept

20、sfeelingsattitudesofthewriter(speaker)ofthesubjectevokesfeelingsinthereader(listener).a.Poetryisoneofthebestexamplesbutmuchofperhapsmostofdinarylanguagediscourseistheexpressionofemotionsfeelingsattitudes.b.Twomainaspects

21、aregenerallynoted:(1)toevokecertainfeelings(2)toexpressfeelings.c.Expressivediscoursequaexpressivediscourseisbestregardedasneithertruefalse.e.g.ShakespearesKingLearslament“Ripenessisall!“Evensothenatureof“fictionalstatem

22、ents“isaninterestingareaofinquiry.3.Directivelanguagefunction:languageusedfthepurposeofcausingpreventingovertactions.a.Thedirectivefunctionismostcommonlyfoundincommsrequests.b.Directivelanguageisnotnmallyconsideredtruefa

23、lse(althoughalogicofcommshavebeendeveloped).c.Example:“Closethewindows.“TheiginoflanguageTheiginoflanguageisstillmystery.Scholarsoverthecenturieshavebeeninterestedinitbecausemanlanguagearesocloselyrelatedthattheybelieved

24、thatifweknowhowwhenlanguageiginatedwewouldprobablyknowhowwhenmanaroseaswell.TherearebeliefsthroughoutthewldthatlanguageisagiftfromGodtomankind.OneofsuchbeliefsisfoundintheHolyBible.WhatdoesLANGUAGEusageindicateaboutspeak

25、ersHowisLANGUAGErelatedtoourmindHowdidLANGUAGEiginateWhydoesLANGUAGEchangewhattriggersthechangeHowdospeakersuseLANGUAGEtoadvancetheirpositioninsocietyWhydoLANGUAGESenterintopoliticalconflictspeacenegotiationsAspectsoflan

26、guageStudyofthedifferentlanguageaspects:PhoicsphonologymphologysyntaxsemanticspragmaticsThesubfieldsoflanguagestudySomesubfieldsinlinguisticsare:phonologyphoics(articulatygesturessoundsoflanguage)semantics(meaning)syntax

27、(grammar)histicallinguistics(histyfamilytreesoflanguages)psycholinguistics(psychologyoflanguage)sociolinguistics(sociologyoflanguage).DevelopmentoflinguisticsEfftstodescribeexplainthehumanlanguagefacultyhavebeenundertake

28、nthroughoutrecdedhisty.ContemparylinguisticsistheoutcomeofacontinuousEuropeanintellectualtraditioniginatinginAncientGreece.Atvariousstagesinhistylinguisticsasadisciplinehasbeeninclosecontactwithsuchdisciplinesasphilosoph

29、yanthropologyphilology.InsomecultureslinguisticanalysishasbeenappliedintheserviceofreligionparticularlyfthedeterminationofthereligiouslypreferredspokenwrittenfmsofsacredtextsinHebrewSanskritArabic.ContemparyWesternlingui

30、sticsisclosetophilosophycognitivescience.ModernWesternlinguisticsInEuropethroughthe19thcenturylinguisticsiscenteredonthecomparativehistyoftheIndoEuropeanlanguageswithaconcernffindingtheircommonrootstracingtheirdevelopmen

31、t.About1880scholarsintheUnitedStatesbegantorecdthehundredsofnativelanguagesoncefoundinNthAmerica.AsthiswkwasdevelopingintheearlytwentiethcenturymainlyinAmericalinguistswereconfrontedwithlanguageswhosestructuresdifferedgr

32、eatlyfromthoseofknownEuropeanlanguages.Scholarsdecidedtheyneededatheyoflinguisticstructuremethodsofanalysis.InEuropetherewasaparalleldevelopmentofstructurallinguisticsinfluencedmoststronglybyFerdindeSaussureaSwissscholar

33、ofIndoEuropeangenerallinguisticswhoselecturesongenerallinguisticspublishedposthumouslybyhisstudentssetthedirectionofEuropeanlinguisticanalysisfromthe1920sonhisapproachhasbeenwidelyadoptedinotherfieldsunderthebroadterm“St

34、ructuralism.“Hisapproachhasbeenwidelyadoptedinotherfieldsunderthebroadterm“Structuralism.”Heisthuscalled“FatherofModernLinguistics”Saussureisprobablystillthegreatestlinguistfewlinguistseventodaycandisputehistheies.Heshow

35、edushowtoseparatehistical(diachronic)linguisticsfromnonhistical(synchronic)linguistics.LeonardBloomfield’sinfluentialtextbookLanguagepublishedin1933presentedacomprehensivedeionofAmericanstructurallinguistics.DuringtheSec

36、ondWldWarheseveralofhisstudentscolleaguesdevelopedteachingmaterialsfavarietyoflanguageswhoseknowledgewasneededfthewarefft.ThiswkledtoanincreasingprominenceofthefieldoflinguisticswhichbecamearecognizeddisciplineinmostAmer

37、icanuniversitiesonlyafterthewar.Fromroughly1980onwardspragmaticfunctionalcognitiveapproacheshavesteadilygainedgroundbothintheU.S.inEurope.BranchesoflinguisticsHisticallinguistics(Comparativehisticallinguistics):thestudyo

38、flanguageswhicharerecognizablyrelatedthroughsimilaritiessuchasvocabularywdfmationsyntax.Generallinguisticsvs.DeivelinguisticsGenerallinguisticssuppliestheconceptscategiesintermsofwhichparticularlanguagesaretobeanalyzed.D

39、eivelinguisticsprovidesthedatawhichconfirmrefutethepropositionstheiesputfwardingenerallinguistics.Synchronicdeionoflanguagevs.DiachronicdeionoflanguageAdiachronicdeionofalanguagetracesthehisticaldevelopmentofthelanguager

40、ecdsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Asynchronicdeionofalanguageisnonhistical.Itpresentsanaccountofthelanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.※Theeticallinguisticsvs.AppliedlinguisticsTheet

41、icallinguisticsstudieslanguagelanguageswithaviewtoconstructingatheyoftheirstructurefunctionswithoutregardtoanypracticalapplications.Appliedlinguisticsisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsfindingsoflinguisticstoavari

42、etyofpracticaltaskssuchaslanguageteachingtranslationlexicographystylisticsspeechtherapyetc.Microlinguisticsvs.MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguisticsisconcernedsolelywiththestructureoflanguagesystemswithoutregardtothewayinwhich

43、languagesareacquiredstedinthebrainusedintheirvariousfunctionswithoutregardtotheinterdependenceoflanguageculture.Macrolinguisticsisconcernedwitheverythingthatpertainsinanywayatalltolanguagelanguages.Somebasicdistinctionsi

44、nlinguisticsLangueParoleThedistinctiondrawnbyFerdindeSaussureinFrenchLangue:theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole:theactualizationoflanguagerealizationof‘langue’.Competence:theideallan

45、guageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhisherlanguage.Thelinguisticcompetenceofaspeakerdescribestheirimplicitknowledgeofalanguagetheirabilitytojudgewhethersentencesaregrammaticalungrammatical.Perfmance:theactualrealizationofthi

46、sknowledgeinutterance.Thelinguisticperfmanceofaspeakeristhewaytheyactuallytalk.Theeticallinguistsareinterestedincompetenceratherthanperfmancebecausetheywanttodesignanidealizedmodelofhowlanguagewkshowitisrepresentedinthem

47、ind.Sociolinguistsvariationistshoweveranalyzethespeakers’perfmance.DeivePreiveLinguisticisdeivenotpreiveDeive:howthingsarePreive:howthingsoughttobeLinguisticsisadeivesciencebecausethelinguisttriestodiscoverrecdtherulesto

48、whichthemembersofalanguagecommunityactuallyconfmdoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrulesnmsofcrectness.SpeechWritingOnegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting(Inlinguisticsenselanguageisfirstofal