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1、<p>  外文翻譯原文--環(huán)境管理和自然旅游目的地的競爭力</p><p>  Environmental and Resource Economics 24 213–233 2003 </p><p><b>  213 </b></p><p>  2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers P

2、rinted in the Netherlands </p><p>  Environmental Management and the </p><p>  Competitiveness of Nature-Based Tourism </p><p>  Destinations </p><p>  TWAN HUYBERS1 an

3、d JEFF BENNETT2 </p><p>  1School of Economics and Management The University of New South Wales Australian Defence </p><p>  Force Academy Canberra ACT 2600 Australia E-mail thuyberscom </p

4、><p>  2National Centre for Development Studies The Australian National University </p><p>  Accepted 15 August 2002 </p><p>  Abstract Environmental management at nature-based touris

5、m destinations includes a private and </p><p>  a public component The former refers to voluntary environmental protection activities carried out </p><p>  by individual and groups of tourism

6、operators These activities are motivated by the dependence </p><p>  of the product provided by the tourism industry on the quality of the natural environment Public </p><p>  sector management

7、on the other hand refers to the environmental regulations imposed on tourism </p><p>  businesses The overall environmental management structure has a dual effect on the competitive- </p><p>  n

8、ess of the tourism industry at nature-based tourism destinations While the industry may benet </p><p>  from environmental management through demand stimulation the tourism businesses also incur the </p&g

9、t;<p>  associated management related costs In this paper the overall effect of environmental management </p><p>  on competitiveness as measured by aggregate tourism industry protability is estimated

10、 in a case </p><p>  study of Tropical North Queensland </p><p>  Key words competitiveness environmental management region tourism </p><p>  JEL classications L83 Q21 Q26 Q28 R11 &

11、lt;/p><p>  1 Introduction </p><p>  Tourism activity has grown rapidly since the Second World War due to advances in </p><p>  technology and increases in standards of living enjoye

12、d across a large part of the </p><p>  world Nature-based tourism is a particularly fast growing type of tourism World </p><p>  Travel and Tourism Council 1998 However increases in the number

13、 of tourists </p><p>  at environmental attractions can put pressure on that environment Department </p><p>  of Tourism 1994 This raises a number of issues Firstly since the environm

14、ent </p><p>  often possesses the characteristics of a public good or a common access resource </p><p>  governments have stepped in to impose regulations with respect to environmental </p>

15、;<p>  impacts of tourism activity This has caused concerns about compliance costs </p><p>  within the tourism industry Yet since the environment provides the attractions for </p>&l

16、t;p>  tourists and hence the livelihood for much of the tourism industry the industry </p><p>  recognises the importance of protecting the environment from tourism induced </p>

17、<p>  214 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>  damage Indeed in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic </p><p>

18、;  and international – a superior condition of the environment might give the destin- </p><p>  ations industry a competitive edge This in turn can provide the impetus for </p><p>  

19、tourism operators to engage in voluntary protection of the environment on which </p><p>  their businesses rely </p><p>  This implies a dual effect of environmental management activities on a t

20、ourism </p><p>  destinations competitiveness On the one hand there are cost implications for </p><p>  tourism businesses that affect negatively the destinations competitive p

21、osition </p><p>  However to the extent that visitor demand is determined by the quality of the </p><p>  destinations environment the destinations competitiveness is en

22、hanced The </p><p>  combination of these two effects is addressed in this paper In particular the cost </p><p>  and demand implications of environmental management for competitiveness ar

23、e </p><p>  investigated in a case study of Tropical North Queensland1 </p><p>  Tropical North Queensland is an appropriate case study region for three related </p><p>  reasons F

24、irstly the region is one of Australias prime nature-based destinations </p><p>  for both domestic and international tourists The regions tourism industry relies </p><p>  heavily on the g

25、eneral quality of its environmental assets Driml and Common </p><p>  1996 Far North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committee 1998 This </p><p>  includes the two World Heri

26、tage listed natural attractions – the Great Barrier </p><p>  Reef and Wet Tropics Rainforests – as well as the general scenic landscapes and </p><p>  natural areas2 Secondly due to the

27、 development of Tropical North Queensland </p><p>  there has been public concern about the quality of the regions environment Far </p><p>  North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committe

28、e 1996 As a result the </p><p>  regions tourism businesses are subjected to various types of environmental regu- </p><p>  lations Huybers and Bennett 2000b The regulatory framework c

29、onstitutes the </p><p>  public environmental management component with respect to the regions tourism </p><p>  industry Finally various private environmental management activities are carried

30、 </p><p>  out in the regions tourism industry Huybers and Bennett 2000b identify environ- </p><p>  mental protection as one of the two major areas of cooperation between tourism </p>

31、<p>  businesses in Tropical North Queensland </p><p>  The paper is structured as follows The conceptual framework underlying the </p><p>  empirical investigation is developed in the

32、 next section This is followed by a </p><p>  section in which the data and their sources are discussed The assumptions under- </p><p>  lying the model are outlined in Section 4

33、The results of the simulations of the </p><p>  model are presented in Section 5 In the nal section the implications of the </p><p>  investigation are discussed </p><

34、;p>  2 Conceptual Framework </p><p>  The literature regarding the relationship between the environment and international </p><p>  competitiveness has traditionally focussed on the effects

35、of environmental compli- </p><p>  ance costs Jayadevappa and Chhatre 2000 UNEP 2000 In this conventional </p><p>  view rms environmental management measures are interpreted

36、as reactive in </p><p>  NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 215 </p><p>  nature ie businesses complying with externally imposed environment

37、al regula- </p><p>  tions Turner Pearce and Bateman 1994 Altham and Guerin 1999 In that context </p><p>  a comparatively high level of domestic environmental protection costs is hypothes- &l

38、t;/p><p>  ised to reduce the internationally competitive position of domestic industries as </p><p>  reected in reduced economic prots andor smaller market shares </p><p>  T

39、he hypothesised relationship between environmental protection costs and </p><p>  international competitiveness has been subjected to empirical investigation Kalt </p><p>  1988

40、 Repetto 1995 Jaffe et al 1995 The empirical studies focus on the macroe- </p><p>  conomic effects of environmental control costs on a countrys trade balance </p><p>  The ndings

41、 show no evidence of a signicant impact of environment control </p><p>  expenditure on international trade ows This is mainly attributed to the small share </p><p>  of environment co

42、ntrol costs in total business costs – approximately two percent </p><p>  on average across industries </p><p>  These studies are limited in two ways They concentrate solely on the

43、cost </p><p>  effects associated with environmental protection regulations imposed by govern- </p><p>  ments and they are predominantly macro in focus However an analysis that <

44、/p><p>  is restricted to the supply side effects across the whole economy ignores the </p><p>  potential relevance of demand side factors on an industry by industry scale Increas- <

45、;/p><p>  ingly rms and industries are becoming aware of the potential benets of their </p><p>  environmental protection activities with respect to consumer demand </p><p>  A

46、cknowledging the potential demand effects of environmental management on </p><p>  competitiveness is particularly relevant to Australias tourism industry Since the </p><p>  environment is an i

47、mportant component of Australias tourism product Huybers </p><p>  and Bennett 1996 1997 protection of the environment can be expected to be </p><p>  an important demand stimulato

48、r The benets that result from demand stimulation </p><p>  may act as an incentive for voluntary environmental protection activities by tourism </p><p>  business operators either individually o

49、r as a group </p><p>  The notion of the dual effect with respect to a nature-based destinations </p><p>  environment-competitiveness relationship is illustrated in Figure 1 I

50、t incorpor- </p><p>  ates the conventional view of tourism businesses regulatory compliance costs </p><p>  as one link between environmental management and competitiveness How

51、ever </p><p>  in addition to government regulations voluntary environmental protection activ- </p><p>  ities by tourism businesses constitute the other component of the environmental

52、</p><p>  management framework </p><p>  The costs incurred by tourism businesses due to environmental management </p><p>  reduce the competitiveness of the destinatio

53、ns tourism industry compared with </p><p>  other destinations ceteris paribus However there may also be a link between </p><p>  environmental management and demand – both dire

54、ct and indirect The indirect </p><p>  link is established via the positive effect of environmental management on the </p><p>  quality of the destinations environmental assets Touri

55、sts are drawn to the region </p><p>  because of its superior environmental attractions compared to other destinations </p><p>  The direct link pertains to the effect of prospective to

56、urists preferences for </p><p>  visiting destinations where the environmental attractions are known to have a </p><p>  216

57、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>  Figure 1 Environmental management and the competitiveness of a nature-based tourism </p><p>  destination </p><p>  protected st

58、atus3 Both the direct and indirect demand side links imply an increased </p><p>  willingness by tourists to pay for a visit to the region </p><p>  The concept of competitiveness is often asso

59、ciated with an individual rm and </p><p>  its position in the business environment For instance in the strategic management </p><p>  literature the emphasis is explicitly on a rms pursuit of p

60、ositive economic prots </p><p>  since rm strategy is essentially about how to position and manage a rm </p><p>  so that efciency rents may be created protected and possibly in

61、creased Foss </p><p>  1996 1 In that context competitiveness is dened as a rms ability to sustain </p><p>  its protability in competition with its rivals This rm-level denition of compet- &l

62、t;/p><p>  itiveness is here applied to the aggregate tourism destination region that as an </p><p>  entity competes with domestic and international regions Hence the focus is on <

63、/p><p>  the aggregate protability of the nature-based tourism industry based in Tropical </p><p>  North Queensland and not on the individual tourism businesses in the region such </p><

64、p>  as accommodation and attraction operators </p><p>  Adopting the perspective of a region or a country as an aggregate entity </p><p>  is common in economic

65、analysis For instance international trade ows are </p><p>  analysed at the country level by considering aggregate country characteristics With </p><p>  respect to tourism destin

66、ations countries and lower level aggregate destinations are </p><p>  frequently used as units of analysis Findlay and Forsyth 1988 Ritchie and Crouch </p><p>  2000 For instance with respect

67、to nature-based destinations Findlay and Forsyth </p><p>  1988 110 refer to the foundation of market power at the national level This is </p><p>  because any one country will have a unique na

68、tural resource endowment </p><p>  Using a region as the unit of analysis is also consistent with the concept of the </p><p>  geographically concentrated cluster Pyke and Sengenberger 199

69、2 Porter 1998 </p><p>  Schmitz 1999 In a cluster rms within the region compete with each other </p><p>  in certain areas on the basis of their individual strengths whi

70、le they engage in </p><p>  collective inter-regional competition based on the regions distinctive features For </p><p>  nature-based tourism destinations cooperative behaviour is expected t

71、o be concen- </p><p>  NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 217 </p><p>  Figure 2 Tropical North Queensland environmental management and pr

72、otability </p><p>  trated on the key natural attractions that are the major distinguishing destination </p><p>  characteristics </p><p>  Huybers and Bennett 2000b document evi

73、dence of the nature and extent of </p><p>  cooperation between tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland The two </p><p>  main areas are collective promotion of the destination and en

74、vironmental protec- </p><p>  tion activities This is further developed in Huybers and Bennett 2001 in which </p><p>  the rationale for treating Tropical North Queensland as a collec

75、tive entity and </p><p>  appropriate aggregate unit of analysis is established </p><p>  The conceptualisation of Figure 1 can be translated into the economic model of </p><p>  

76、Figure 2 This model is the basis for the empirical investigations reported in the </p><p>  paper It shows Tropical North Queensland as a destination that competes in an </p><p>  imperfect

77、ly competitive international market for tourism destinations4 The region </p><p>  exerts a degree of market power due to the differentiation of its tourism product </p><p>  based on the rela

78、tively high quality of its environmental assets This is reected in </p><p>  the downward sloping demand curve Applying the model of imperfect competition </p><p>  to a tourism destination is c

79、onsistent with Findlay and Forsyth 1988 </p><p>  Figure 2 illustrates the impact of environmental management on the aggregate </p><p>  protability of Tropical North Queenslands tourism indus

80、try It shows the market </p><p>  for Tropical North Queenslands composite tourism product in two situations with </p><p>  and without environmental management For simplicity marginal costs MC

81、 are </p><p>  assumed constant and hence the MC and average cost AC curves are drawn as a </p><p>  single horizontal line5 Cost curves MC and AC the downward sloping demand </p

82、><p>  1 1 </p><p>  curve D 1 and its associated marginal revenue curve MR 1 refer to the situation </p><p>  218

83、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p>  in which environmental management has been effective in achieving a high </p><p>  environmental quality The prot-imisation equilibrium

84、is reached at quantity </p><p>  q and price p resulting in an aggregate economic prot accruing to the regions </p><p>  1 1 </p><p>  tourism industry equal to are

85、a abcp1 </p><p>  The situation without environmental management is represented by a decline </p><p>  in both demand and in costs of Tropical North Queenslands tourism product <

86、;/p><p>  ceteris paribus These costs include rms costs of complying with imposed </p><p>  government regulations and any expenditure related to voluntary environmental <

87、/p><p>  protection activities While tourism business operators costs fall due to the absence </p><p>  of environmental management the condition of the environment deteriorates and </p><

88、;p>  results in a fall in demand This situation is represented by the cost curves </p><p>  MC AC demand curve D and marginal revenue curve MR The new level </p>

89、<p>  2 2 2 2 </p><p>  of aggregate prot is equal to area defp A fall in aggregate industry prot as </p><p><b

90、>  2 </b></p><p>  depicted in Figure 2 is interpreted as a decline in destination competitiveness </p><p>  The marginal perspective represented in Figure 2 implies that the

91、direction </p><p>  and magnitude of the change in the regions aggregate tourism industry prot </p><p>  depends on the relative magnitudes of the cost and demand side effe

92、cts ceteris </p><p>  paribus 6 The latter refers for instance to the situation at other destinations It also </p><p>  involves the other conditions related to Tropical North Queensland itsel

93、f such as </p><p>  the regions destination promotion While Tropical North Queenslands destination </p><p>  promotion emphasises the quality of its natural attractions the extent and nature of

94、</p><p>  that promotion and is assumed to be unaffected in the analysis </p><p>  The above model is used as the basis of an empirical assessment of the compet- </p><p>  itiveness

95、 effects of environmental management in Tropical North Queensland To </p><p>  determine the shift in the cost curves in Figure 2 estimates of tourism businesses </p><p>  costs of environmental

96、 management are required Similarly estimates of the effect </p><p>  of environmental quality on tourist demand are needed to assess the shift in the </p><p>  demand curve in the gure The natu

97、re of the relevant data and the methodologies </p><p>  used to collect them are now briey discussed </p><p><b>  3 Data </b></p><p>  31 COSTS </p><p> 

98、 Australian Bureau of Statistics 1999a contains gures on environment protec- </p><p>  tion expenditure in Australian industries in 1996–97 Environment protection </p><

99、p>  expenditure includes expenditure related to compliance with regulations as well </p><p>  as voluntary activities associated with market forces Using industry cost gures </p><p>  A

100、ustralian Bureau of Statistics 1999b it can be shown that the costs of environ- </p><p>  mental management are less than or around one percent of total costs for Australian </p><p>  industrie

101、s </p><p>  However environmental management costs may be more signicant for indi- </p><p>  vidual industries or sectors within industries For instance some industries sectors </p><

102、p>  NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 219 </p><p>  or individual rms depend more heavily on the environment than others and are </p><p>

103、  more heavily regulated with respect to their effects on the environment This is </p><p>  reected in higher environmental compliance costs In that context Huybers and </p><p>  Bennett

104、1996 1997 estimated the costs of environmental regulations to tourism </p><p>  operators in Australia to be around ve percent of total business costs </p><p>  To substantiate the industry est

105、imates the costs of environmental management </p><p>  to tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland were estimated using eld </p><p>  study data Huybers and Bennett 2000b

106、 Out of 24 operators interviewed 14 </p><p>  operators gave a numerical estimate of the proportion of overall environmental </p><p>  protection costs andor a separate est

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