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1、<p> 外文翻譯原文--環(huán)境管理和自然旅游目的地的競爭力</p><p> Environmental and Resource Economics 24 213–233 2003 </p><p><b> 213 </b></p><p> 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers P
2、rinted in the Netherlands </p><p> Environmental Management and the </p><p> Competitiveness of Nature-Based Tourism </p><p> Destinations </p><p> TWAN HUYBERS1 an
3、d JEFF BENNETT2 </p><p> 1School of Economics and Management The University of New South Wales Australian Defence </p><p> Force Academy Canberra ACT 2600 Australia E-mail thuyberscom </p
4、><p> 2National Centre for Development Studies The Australian National University </p><p> Accepted 15 August 2002 </p><p> Abstract Environmental management at nature-based touris
5、m destinations includes a private and </p><p> a public component The former refers to voluntary environmental protection activities carried out </p><p> by individual and groups of tourism
6、operators These activities are motivated by the dependence </p><p> of the product provided by the tourism industry on the quality of the natural environment Public </p><p> sector management
7、on the other hand refers to the environmental regulations imposed on tourism </p><p> businesses The overall environmental management structure has a dual effect on the competitive- </p><p> n
8、ess of the tourism industry at nature-based tourism destinations While the industry may benet </p><p> from environmental management through demand stimulation the tourism businesses also incur the </p&g
9、t;<p> associated management related costs In this paper the overall effect of environmental management </p><p> on competitiveness as measured by aggregate tourism industry protability is estimated
10、 in a case </p><p> study of Tropical North Queensland </p><p> Key words competitiveness environmental management region tourism </p><p> JEL classications L83 Q21 Q26 Q28 R11 &
11、lt;/p><p> 1 Introduction </p><p> Tourism activity has grown rapidly since the Second World War due to advances in </p><p> technology and increases in standards of living enjoye
12、d across a large part of the </p><p> world Nature-based tourism is a particularly fast growing type of tourism World </p><p> Travel and Tourism Council 1998 However increases in the number
13、 of tourists </p><p> at environmental attractions can put pressure on that environment Department </p><p> of Tourism 1994 This raises a number of issues Firstly since the environm
14、ent </p><p> often possesses the characteristics of a public good or a common access resource </p><p> governments have stepped in to impose regulations with respect to environmental </p>
15、;<p> impacts of tourism activity This has caused concerns about compliance costs </p><p> within the tourism industry Yet since the environment provides the attractions for </p>&l
16、t;p> tourists and hence the livelihood for much of the tourism industry the industry </p><p> recognises the importance of protecting the environment from tourism induced </p>
17、<p> 214 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p> damage Indeed in terms of competition with other destinations – both domestic </p><p>
18、; and international – a superior condition of the environment might give the destin- </p><p> ations industry a competitive edge This in turn can provide the impetus for </p><p>
19、tourism operators to engage in voluntary protection of the environment on which </p><p> their businesses rely </p><p> This implies a dual effect of environmental management activities on a t
20、ourism </p><p> destinations competitiveness On the one hand there are cost implications for </p><p> tourism businesses that affect negatively the destinations competitive p
21、osition </p><p> However to the extent that visitor demand is determined by the quality of the </p><p> destinations environment the destinations competitiveness is en
22、hanced The </p><p> combination of these two effects is addressed in this paper In particular the cost </p><p> and demand implications of environmental management for competitiveness ar
23、e </p><p> investigated in a case study of Tropical North Queensland1 </p><p> Tropical North Queensland is an appropriate case study region for three related </p><p> reasons F
24、irstly the region is one of Australias prime nature-based destinations </p><p> for both domestic and international tourists The regions tourism industry relies </p><p> heavily on the g
25、eneral quality of its environmental assets Driml and Common </p><p> 1996 Far North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committee 1998 This </p><p> includes the two World Heri
26、tage listed natural attractions – the Great Barrier </p><p> Reef and Wet Tropics Rainforests – as well as the general scenic landscapes and </p><p> natural areas2 Secondly due to the
27、 development of Tropical North Queensland </p><p> there has been public concern about the quality of the regions environment Far </p><p> North Queensland Regional Planning Advisory Committe
28、e 1996 As a result the </p><p> regions tourism businesses are subjected to various types of environmental regu- </p><p> lations Huybers and Bennett 2000b The regulatory framework c
29、onstitutes the </p><p> public environmental management component with respect to the regions tourism </p><p> industry Finally various private environmental management activities are carried
30、 </p><p> out in the regions tourism industry Huybers and Bennett 2000b identify environ- </p><p> mental protection as one of the two major areas of cooperation between tourism </p>
31、<p> businesses in Tropical North Queensland </p><p> The paper is structured as follows The conceptual framework underlying the </p><p> empirical investigation is developed in the
32、 next section This is followed by a </p><p> section in which the data and their sources are discussed The assumptions under- </p><p> lying the model are outlined in Section 4
33、The results of the simulations of the </p><p> model are presented in Section 5 In the nal section the implications of the </p><p> investigation are discussed </p><
34、;p> 2 Conceptual Framework </p><p> The literature regarding the relationship between the environment and international </p><p> competitiveness has traditionally focussed on the effects
35、of environmental compli- </p><p> ance costs Jayadevappa and Chhatre 2000 UNEP 2000 In this conventional </p><p> view rms environmental management measures are interpreted
36、as reactive in </p><p> NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 215 </p><p> nature ie businesses complying with externally imposed environment
37、al regula- </p><p> tions Turner Pearce and Bateman 1994 Altham and Guerin 1999 In that context </p><p> a comparatively high level of domestic environmental protection costs is hypothes- &l
38、t;/p><p> ised to reduce the internationally competitive position of domestic industries as </p><p> reected in reduced economic prots andor smaller market shares </p><p> T
39、he hypothesised relationship between environmental protection costs and </p><p> international competitiveness has been subjected to empirical investigation Kalt </p><p> 1988
40、 Repetto 1995 Jaffe et al 1995 The empirical studies focus on the macroe- </p><p> conomic effects of environmental control costs on a countrys trade balance </p><p> The ndings
41、 show no evidence of a signicant impact of environment control </p><p> expenditure on international trade ows This is mainly attributed to the small share </p><p> of environment co
42、ntrol costs in total business costs – approximately two percent </p><p> on average across industries </p><p> These studies are limited in two ways They concentrate solely on the
43、cost </p><p> effects associated with environmental protection regulations imposed by govern- </p><p> ments and they are predominantly macro in focus However an analysis that <
44、/p><p> is restricted to the supply side effects across the whole economy ignores the </p><p> potential relevance of demand side factors on an industry by industry scale Increas- <
45、;/p><p> ingly rms and industries are becoming aware of the potential benets of their </p><p> environmental protection activities with respect to consumer demand </p><p> A
46、cknowledging the potential demand effects of environmental management on </p><p> competitiveness is particularly relevant to Australias tourism industry Since the </p><p> environment is an i
47、mportant component of Australias tourism product Huybers </p><p> and Bennett 1996 1997 protection of the environment can be expected to be </p><p> an important demand stimulato
48、r The benets that result from demand stimulation </p><p> may act as an incentive for voluntary environmental protection activities by tourism </p><p> business operators either individually o
49、r as a group </p><p> The notion of the dual effect with respect to a nature-based destinations </p><p> environment-competitiveness relationship is illustrated in Figure 1 I
50、t incorpor- </p><p> ates the conventional view of tourism businesses regulatory compliance costs </p><p> as one link between environmental management and competitiveness How
51、ever </p><p> in addition to government regulations voluntary environmental protection activ- </p><p> ities by tourism businesses constitute the other component of the environmental
52、</p><p> management framework </p><p> The costs incurred by tourism businesses due to environmental management </p><p> reduce the competitiveness of the destinatio
53、ns tourism industry compared with </p><p> other destinations ceteris paribus However there may also be a link between </p><p> environmental management and demand – both dire
54、ct and indirect The indirect </p><p> link is established via the positive effect of environmental management on the </p><p> quality of the destinations environmental assets Touri
55、sts are drawn to the region </p><p> because of its superior environmental attractions compared to other destinations </p><p> The direct link pertains to the effect of prospective to
56、urists preferences for </p><p> visiting destinations where the environmental attractions are known to have a </p><p> 216
57、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p> Figure 1 Environmental management and the competitiveness of a nature-based tourism </p><p> destination </p><p> protected st
58、atus3 Both the direct and indirect demand side links imply an increased </p><p> willingness by tourists to pay for a visit to the region </p><p> The concept of competitiveness is often asso
59、ciated with an individual rm and </p><p> its position in the business environment For instance in the strategic management </p><p> literature the emphasis is explicitly on a rms pursuit of p
60、ositive economic prots </p><p> since rm strategy is essentially about how to position and manage a rm </p><p> so that efciency rents may be created protected and possibly in
61、creased Foss </p><p> 1996 1 In that context competitiveness is dened as a rms ability to sustain </p><p> its protability in competition with its rivals This rm-level denition of compet- &l
62、t;/p><p> itiveness is here applied to the aggregate tourism destination region that as an </p><p> entity competes with domestic and international regions Hence the focus is on <
63、/p><p> the aggregate protability of the nature-based tourism industry based in Tropical </p><p> North Queensland and not on the individual tourism businesses in the region such </p><
64、p> as accommodation and attraction operators </p><p> Adopting the perspective of a region or a country as an aggregate entity </p><p> is common in economic
65、analysis For instance international trade ows are </p><p> analysed at the country level by considering aggregate country characteristics With </p><p> respect to tourism destin
66、ations countries and lower level aggregate destinations are </p><p> frequently used as units of analysis Findlay and Forsyth 1988 Ritchie and Crouch </p><p> 2000 For instance with respect
67、to nature-based destinations Findlay and Forsyth </p><p> 1988 110 refer to the foundation of market power at the national level This is </p><p> because any one country will have a unique na
68、tural resource endowment </p><p> Using a region as the unit of analysis is also consistent with the concept of the </p><p> geographically concentrated cluster Pyke and Sengenberger 199
69、2 Porter 1998 </p><p> Schmitz 1999 In a cluster rms within the region compete with each other </p><p> in certain areas on the basis of their individual strengths whi
70、le they engage in </p><p> collective inter-regional competition based on the regions distinctive features For </p><p> nature-based tourism destinations cooperative behaviour is expected t
71、o be concen- </p><p> NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 217 </p><p> Figure 2 Tropical North Queensland environmental management and pr
72、otability </p><p> trated on the key natural attractions that are the major distinguishing destination </p><p> characteristics </p><p> Huybers and Bennett 2000b document evi
73、dence of the nature and extent of </p><p> cooperation between tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland The two </p><p> main areas are collective promotion of the destination and en
74、vironmental protec- </p><p> tion activities This is further developed in Huybers and Bennett 2001 in which </p><p> the rationale for treating Tropical North Queensland as a collec
75、tive entity and </p><p> appropriate aggregate unit of analysis is established </p><p> The conceptualisation of Figure 1 can be translated into the economic model of </p><p>
76、Figure 2 This model is the basis for the empirical investigations reported in the </p><p> paper It shows Tropical North Queensland as a destination that competes in an </p><p> imperfect
77、ly competitive international market for tourism destinations4 The region </p><p> exerts a degree of market power due to the differentiation of its tourism product </p><p> based on the rela
78、tively high quality of its environmental assets This is reected in </p><p> the downward sloping demand curve Applying the model of imperfect competition </p><p> to a tourism destination is c
79、onsistent with Findlay and Forsyth 1988 </p><p> Figure 2 illustrates the impact of environmental management on the aggregate </p><p> protability of Tropical North Queenslands tourism indus
80、try It shows the market </p><p> for Tropical North Queenslands composite tourism product in two situations with </p><p> and without environmental management For simplicity marginal costs MC
81、 are </p><p> assumed constant and hence the MC and average cost AC curves are drawn as a </p><p> single horizontal line5 Cost curves MC and AC the downward sloping demand </p
82、><p> 1 1 </p><p> curve D 1 and its associated marginal revenue curve MR 1 refer to the situation </p><p> 218
83、 TWAN HUYBERS AND JEFF BENNETT </p><p> in which environmental management has been effective in achieving a high </p><p> environmental quality The prot-imisation equilibrium
84、is reached at quantity </p><p> q and price p resulting in an aggregate economic prot accruing to the regions </p><p> 1 1 </p><p> tourism industry equal to are
85、a abcp1 </p><p> The situation without environmental management is represented by a decline </p><p> in both demand and in costs of Tropical North Queenslands tourism product <
86、;/p><p> ceteris paribus These costs include rms costs of complying with imposed </p><p> government regulations and any expenditure related to voluntary environmental <
87、/p><p> protection activities While tourism business operators costs fall due to the absence </p><p> of environmental management the condition of the environment deteriorates and </p><
88、;p> results in a fall in demand This situation is represented by the cost curves </p><p> MC AC demand curve D and marginal revenue curve MR The new level </p>
89、<p> 2 2 2 2 </p><p> of aggregate prot is equal to area defp A fall in aggregate industry prot as </p><p><b
90、> 2 </b></p><p> depicted in Figure 2 is interpreted as a decline in destination competitiveness </p><p> The marginal perspective represented in Figure 2 implies that the
91、direction </p><p> and magnitude of the change in the regions aggregate tourism industry prot </p><p> depends on the relative magnitudes of the cost and demand side effe
92、cts ceteris </p><p> paribus 6 The latter refers for instance to the situation at other destinations It also </p><p> involves the other conditions related to Tropical North Queensland itsel
93、f such as </p><p> the regions destination promotion While Tropical North Queenslands destination </p><p> promotion emphasises the quality of its natural attractions the extent and nature of
94、</p><p> that promotion and is assumed to be unaffected in the analysis </p><p> The above model is used as the basis of an empirical assessment of the compet- </p><p> itiveness
95、 effects of environmental management in Tropical North Queensland To </p><p> determine the shift in the cost curves in Figure 2 estimates of tourism businesses </p><p> costs of environmental
96、 management are required Similarly estimates of the effect </p><p> of environmental quality on tourist demand are needed to assess the shift in the </p><p> demand curve in the gure The natu
97、re of the relevant data and the methodologies </p><p> used to collect them are now briey discussed </p><p><b> 3 Data </b></p><p> 31 COSTS </p><p>
98、 Australian Bureau of Statistics 1999a contains gures on environment protec- </p><p> tion expenditure in Australian industries in 1996–97 Environment protection </p><
99、p> expenditure includes expenditure related to compliance with regulations as well </p><p> as voluntary activities associated with market forces Using industry cost gures </p><p> A
100、ustralian Bureau of Statistics 1999b it can be shown that the costs of environ- </p><p> mental management are less than or around one percent of total costs for Australian </p><p> industrie
101、s </p><p> However environmental management costs may be more signicant for indi- </p><p> vidual industries or sectors within industries For instance some industries sectors </p><
102、p> NATURE-BASED TOURISM DESTINATIONS 219 </p><p> or individual rms depend more heavily on the environment than others and are </p><p>
103、 more heavily regulated with respect to their effects on the environment This is </p><p> reected in higher environmental compliance costs In that context Huybers and </p><p> Bennett
104、1996 1997 estimated the costs of environmental regulations to tourism </p><p> operators in Australia to be around ve percent of total business costs </p><p> To substantiate the industry est
105、imates the costs of environmental management </p><p> to tourism businesses in Tropical North Queensland were estimated using eld </p><p> study data Huybers and Bennett 2000b
106、 Out of 24 operators interviewed 14 </p><p> operators gave a numerical estimate of the proportion of overall environmental </p><p> protection costs andor a separate est
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