環(huán)藝設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯--綠色景觀規(guī)劃的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施（節(jié)選自書籍）

1、<p><b>　　中文4473字</b></p><p>　　本 科 外 文 翻 譯</p><p>　　綠色景觀規(guī)劃的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施</p><p>　　Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning</p><p>　　學(xué) 部（院）： 建筑與藝術(shù)學(xué)院 <

2、;/p><p>　　專 業(yè)： 環(huán)境藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì) </p><p>　　學(xué) 生 姓 名： </p><p>　　學(xué) 號(hào)： </p><p>　　指 導(dǎo) 教 師： </p>

3、<p>　　完 成 日 期： 2015/4/10 </p><p>　　Chapter Three</p><p>　　Ecosystem functions and health</p><p>　　Maintaining biological diversity</p><p>　　One of s

4、everal goals of the following chapters is to show how to maintain or enhance biodiversity at the landscape and municipal level through the use of green infrastructure. Maintaining biodiversity is a challenge, since many

5、species are negatively impacted by human activity or require large territories. In fact, some species require huge territories virtually undisturbed by humans in order to sustain viable populations (Figure 3.11). For exa

6、mple, grizzly bears occupy overlapping home ranges, </p><p>　　Figure 3.12 The hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus) is a forest interior species and highly sensitive to human presence and activity. Its presence

7、is reduced around country residences in the forest for as much as 600 feet.</p><p>　　In contrast, many species do adapt to the presence of people and the land-use changes they establish. Some species seem to

8、 adapt to fragmentation of their habitat. The scarlet tanager is an interior forest bird, but it seems to breed in forest fragments less than 25 acres (10 ha) in size when its preferred interior habitat is diminished.10

9、Some species, such as crows, are even considered completely urbanized and flourish in cities even to the point of becoming pests, as is the case with rats and</p><p>　　discussed in the following chapters.<

10、;/p><p>　　Invasive species</p><p>　　Non-indigenous species that become established within natural ecosystems threaten the healthy function of the system. Invasive species in the US, such as kudzu,

11、zebra mussels, grass carp, starlings and nutria, have damaged ecosystem health.4 As for biodiversity assessment, there is no national mapping and monitoring of all invasive species and their impact, although for some are

12、as and habitat types more information is available. The assessment of the aquatic ecosystems (soft-bottom estuaries) al</p><p>　　Ecosystem resilience</p><p>　　Ecosystems are subject to shocks fr

13、om natural and man-made catastrophes. Some ecosystems are quite vulnerable to perturbation. Some, such as fireadapted communities, even invite certain kinds of dramatic change. Other ecosystems have a greater capacity to

14、 adsorb shocks while maintaining ecosystem functions, but recover slowly.5 This variability of vulnerability and resilience leads to a regional landscape of dynamic ecosystems. Thus regions are composed of disturbed, rec

15、overing and mature ecosys</p><p>　　Extinction of a functional group of species can be a severe impact to ecosystem functions.</p><p>　　Resilience is the ability to return to the stable state aft

16、er disturbance. If the disturbance is severe, it can cause the ecosystem to change states and represents long-term declines in species composition and ecosystem functions. Resilience can be expressed as a measure of the

17、time it takes the ecosystem to return from the stressed state to the original condition, or expressed as the return of the network of species in the undisturbed system.</p><p>　　Climate influences ecosystem

18、resilience, so climate change could increase or decrease recovery rates. At the local scale, resilience is reduced if infiltration, soil moisture and nutrient cycles diminish. Therefore, soils structurally resistant to c

19、hange contribute to high resilience.22 Sustainable use and management of forest ecosystems requires protection of soils and preservation of seed sources and the rapid migration of seed into damaged landscapes. Since comm

20、ercial forestry and damage asso</p><p>　　Figure 3.13 A helicopter on a recently burned forest in Arizona drops a 900-pound bale of straw to control erosion and flooding. One ton of straw per acre was placed

21、over 25,000 acres seeded with barley and other plants to help restore damage from the largest forest fire in the history of Arizona.</p><p>　　The Louisiana study also demonstrated links between the resilienc

22、e of the ecosystems and recovery of human systems. Businesses linked to ecosystem services, such as fisheries, agriculture and forestry, were least resilient when tied to the least resilient ecosystem types. Conversely,

23、the resilient wetlands and croplands were linked to higher business resilience.23</p><p>　　Indicators</p><p>　　The study above used an indicator of ecosystem health, assuming that other aspects

24、would match the performance of the indicator. Ecosystem resilience is even more complex to demonstrate and monitor than ecosystem health. To simplify the process, reduce cost and communicate more clearly with citizens an

25、d decision makers, the use of ecosystem indicators simplifies data collection, assessment and communication. Many people are familiar with the concept of indicator species. The presence, abundance </p><p>　　

26、Figure 3.14 Removal of invasive species and other management activities may be required to sustain healthy ecosystems within the green infrastructure.</p><p>　　Indicators are numerical values that define the

27、 state and trend of a system. Generally, several indicators are necessary to describe complex systems or relationships. The most critical and difficult task is establishing the set of indicators and testing that they rel

28、iably describe the system. For example, a set of indicators was proposed to define the health of the urban forest in and around Gainesville, Florida and its provision of ecosystem services. Of course, the forest was mapp

29、ed and data w</p><p>　　In municipalities the creation of a green infrastructure will involve preservation of existing habitat and corridors, but will also require newly designed or restored landscapes. Exist

30、ing habitat in the city will require management to mitigate the impacts of pollution and human use, as well as controlling invasive species (Figure 3.14). New or restored landscapes can increase rare ecosystems, such as

31、wetlands, and build the components that lead to healthy ecosystems, such as improvements to soil</p><p>　　References</p><p>　　1 Gomez-Baggethun, “Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services,” in Ecos

32、ystem Services, Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 30, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010.</p><p>　　2 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity

33、 Synthesis, Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2005.</p><p>　　3 F. He, “Species–rea Relationships Always Overestimate Extinction Rates from Habitat Loss,” Nature, vol. 473, pp. 368–371, 2011.</p&g

34、t;<p>　　4 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “EPA’s 2008 Report on the Environment,” National Technical Information Service, Environmental Assessment EPA/600/R-07/045F, 2008.</p><p>　　5 R. M. H

35、assan, S. R. Carpenter, K. Chopra, D. Capistrano and Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005.</p><p>　　6 L. Fahrig, “Effects of Habitat Fragmentat

36、ion on Biodiversity,” Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 487–515, 2003.</p><p>　　7 T. Dahl, Status and Trends of Wetlands in the Conterminous United States 2004 to 2009

37、, Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010.</p><p>　　8 D. Patton, J. Bergstrom, A. Covich and R. Moore, National Wildlife Refuge Wetland Ecosystem Service Valuation Model, Phase 1 Report: An Assess

38、ment of Ecosystem Services Associated with National Wildlife Refuges, Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012.</p><p>　　9 G. Daily, Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natu

39、ral Ecosystems, Washington, DC: Ecological Society of America, 1997.</p><p>　　10 A. Fitter, “An Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Europe,” in Ecosystem Services, Issues in Environmental Sc

40、ience and Technology, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010.</p><p>　　11 US Fish and Wildlife Service, “Contaminants,” 8 October 2010. [Online]. Available: www.fws.gov/r5crc/Habitat/Contaminants.html (

41、accessed 15 March 2013).</p><p>　　12 J. Thornes, “Atmospheric Services,” in Ecosystem Services, Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 30, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010.</p>

42、<p>　　13 “Surface-Level Ozone Pollution Set To Reduce Tree Growth 10% By 2100,” Science News, 10 December 2008. [Online]. Available: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121030161523.htm (accessed 1 March 2013).&

43、lt;/p><p>　　14 “Ozone’s Impact on Soybean Yield: Reducing Future Losses,” Science News, 30 October 2012. [Online]. Available: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121030161523.htm (accessed 1 March 2013).</

44、p><p>　　15 US EPA, “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2009,” EPA 430-R-11–05, 2011.</p><p>　　16 D. Shindell, “Simultaneously Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change and Improvi

45、ng Human Health and Food Security,” Science, vol. 335, no. 6065, pp. 183–189, 2012.</p><p>　　17 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, “Summary Statistics,” 2011. [Online]. Ava

46、ilable: www.iucnredlist.org/about/summary-statistics#Tables_1_2 (accessed 8 March 2013).</p><p>　　18 US Fish and Wildlife Service, “Species Fact Sheet: Northern Spotted Owl, Strix occidentalis caurina,” 5 No

47、vember 2012. [Online]. Available: www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/Species/Data/NorthernSpottedOwl (accessed 8 March 2013).</p><p>　　19 J. R. Sauer, J. E. Hines, J. E. Fallon, K. L. Pardieck, D. J. Ziolkowski and W. A.

48、 Link, “The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966–010,” 2011. [Online]. Available: www.mbrpwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/bbs.html (accessed 8 March 2013).</p><p>　　20 F. Craighead, “Grizzly Bear

49、Ranges and Movement as Determined by Radiotracking,” in Bears: Their Biology and Management, vol. 3, Binghamton, NY, and Moscow: JSTOR, 1974.</p><p>　　21 M. J. Glennon and H. E. Kretser, “Size of the Ecologi

50、cal Effect Zone Associated with Exurban Development in the Adirondack Park, NY,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 112, pp. 10–17, 2013.</p><p>　　22 H. Yan, J. Zhan and T. Zhang, “Resilience of Forest Ecosy

51、stems and Its Influencing Factors,” Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 10, pp. 2201–2206, 2011.</p><p>　　23 A. E. Frazier, C. S. Renschler and S. B. Miles, “Evaluating Post-Disaster Ecosystem Resilience U

52、sing MODIS GPP data,” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, vol. 21, pp. 43–52, 2013. </p><p>　　24 C. Dobbs, F. J. Escobedo and W. C. Zipperer, “A Framework for Developing Ur

53、ban Forest Ecosystem Services and Goods Indicators,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 99, no. 3–4, pp. 196–206, 2011.</p><p>　　Chapter Four</p><p>　　Ecosystem services</p><p>　　In

54、troduction</p><p>　　In contrast to the previous chapter, the sections below concentrate on the potential ecosystem services and the actual benefits to man. When humans directly or indirectly use the environm

55、ent and products from it, they are receiving ecosystem services. Examples of ecosystem products include clean water, food, lumber, minerals, fibers, etc. ( Figure 4.1). Non-product services include water purification, wa

56、ste treatment and intangible elements such as recreation and beauty. An ecosystem benefit is </p><p>　　The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment divided ecosystem services that benefit humans into four classes: (1

57、) supporting; (2) regulating; (3) provisioning; and (4) cultural. Supporting ecosystem services indirectly benefit humans but are fundamental to the other three categories of services that are more directly enjoyed by pe

58、ople.2 “Ecosystem services” is a deliberately anthropocentric phrase that frames the argument for preservation of natural systems in the cost–enefit terminology of economics. I</p><p>　　Green infrastructure

59、organizes several elements that provide human and ecosystem benefits. This chapter establishes the typology of ecosystem services and benefits, as well as threats to them, in the context of green infrastructure at the mu

60、nicipal and landscape scale. Components that are managed ecosystems for the explicit purpose of maximizing certain ecosystem products, such as wastewater treatment, are the subjects of later chapters. The eight functions

61、 and services identified in Figure 1.5 </p><p>　　Human benefits from supporting ecosystem functions</p><p>　　The provision of seafood, timber, fodder and other commonly traded natural products a

62、re ecosystem services provided on a scale that is larger than generally associated with green infrastructure. However, networks of corridors, spaces and habitat areas within the city and county have an impact on these mo

63、re distantly derived products. Community agriculture and forestry, and certainly residential and public landscapes, depend on the maintenance of supporting ecosystem services,3 such as soil forma</p><p>　　Fi

64、gure 4.1 Products, like lumber, food and medicine, are the most obvious of the ecosystem benefits, but there are many other important services including air and water purification, waste decomposition, soil and nutrient

65、cycling, climate and radiation regulation, habitat noise pollution control, aesthetic and cultural.</p><p>　　綠色景觀規(guī)劃的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施</p><p>　　Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning</p><p>

66、　　第三章 生態(tài)系統(tǒng)功能和健康</p><p><b>　　維持生物多樣性</b></p><p>　　接下來幾個(gè)章節(jié)的闡述核心之一就是揭示怎樣通過使用綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施維持或增強(qiáng)庭院設(shè)計(jì)中的生物多樣性。維持生物多樣性是一個(gè)難題，因?yàn)樵S多物種都被人類活動(dòng)造成了不良的影響，或者它們本身就需要很大的棲息面積。實(shí)際上，一些需要較大棲息地的物種在無形中為了保持能夠維持種群的數(shù)量也會(huì)

67、影響人類。比如，北美灰熊占據(jù)了重疊的棲息范圍，但它們?cè)邳S石公園生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的密度為每34平方英里1只其它物種對(duì)于人類的存在以及活動(dòng)都極其敏感。對(duì)于這些物種，一間在森林中的鄉(xiāng)村住所可以將這些物種的在樹林中的生存范圍減小600英尺。</p><p>　　圖3.12 隱士畫眉鳥是一種生活在森林內(nèi)部的鳥類，對(duì)于人類的存在和活動(dòng)高度敏感。它的在樹林中居民周圍的活動(dòng)范圍可以減少到600英尺。</p><p&

68、gt;　　與之形成對(duì)比的是，許多物種可以適應(yīng)它們棲息地中人類的存在以及相應(yīng)的變化。一些物種似乎可以適應(yīng)它們的棲息地變得支離破碎。斯嘉麗唐納雀是一種生活在森林內(nèi)部的鳥類，但它，但當(dāng)它更適應(yīng)的內(nèi)部棲息地縮小的時(shí)候，它似乎也可以在小于25英畝（10公頃）的狹小區(qū)域內(nèi)進(jìn)行繁殖。一些物種，比如烏鴉，完全可以在城市之中立足繁衍甚至最終成為城市中的公害，老鼠和蟑螂也同樣如此。在都市區(qū)域內(nèi)的生物多樣性要比更稍微自然一些的生態(tài)環(huán)境中更高。這通過人類活動(dòng)引

69、起的許多外來的或者入侵的物種的存在可以得到解釋。外來的植物，其原始棲息地可以分散到全球，通常能夠在市中心以及居民花園的觀賞性庭院中占據(jù)主體。本地物種的生物多樣性在城市環(huán)境中總會(huì)差一些。然而，受環(huán)境支持的本地物種的變化和個(gè)體的數(shù)量可以通過謹(jǐn)慎的城市設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)劃實(shí)現(xiàn)最大化，這將在接下來的幾章中談到。</p><p><b>　　入侵生物</b></p><p>　　非本地的物

70、種在自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中如果能夠生存將嚴(yán)重威脅該系統(tǒng)的職能。美國的入侵物種，比如野葛，斑馬貽貝，草魚，八哥和海貍鼠，已經(jīng)損害了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)?！?】就生物多樣性的評(píng)估而言，沒有全國性的定位和監(jiān)控所有入侵物種以及它們?cè)斐傻挠绊?，雖然對(duì)于一些區(qū)域和棲息地種類而言更多的數(shù)據(jù)是可以獲得的。對(duì)于沿著北加利福尼亞州一直到加拿大的水中生態(tài)系統(tǒng)（軟底海灣）的評(píng)估可以作為研究入侵生物影響的一個(gè)例子。一項(xiàng)對(duì)于這一地區(qū)的研究測(cè)量了深海底入侵生物（棲息在沉積層表面或者內(nèi)部

71、的生物體）的富集程度。研究表明入侵物種對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的危害要比沉積現(xiàn)象和人類引起的富營養(yǎng)化現(xiàn)象的危害更大。大約有百分之十五的在該區(qū)域內(nèi)的觀測(cè)點(diǎn)包含了比當(dāng)?shù)氐纳矬w更多的入侵物種。剩下的百分之二十的觀測(cè)點(diǎn)被非本地的物種適度地入侵?！?】</p><p><b>　　生物系統(tǒng)恢復(fù)彈性</b></p><p>　　生態(tài)系統(tǒng)容易遭受自然的和人類帶來的災(zāi)難的影響。一些生態(tài)系統(tǒng)非常

72、容易受到不安因素的影響。一些區(qū)域，比如適應(yīng)火災(zāi)的區(qū)域，甚至?xí)鹛囟ǚN類的劇烈的變動(dòng)。其他的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)具有在保持生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的功能的同時(shí)緩解不良影響的能力，但這種系統(tǒng)恢復(fù)得更慢?！?】這種脆弱性和恢復(fù)性的變化會(huì)導(dǎo)致一種動(dòng)態(tài)的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的區(qū)域性的景觀。這些區(qū)域包含了分散的，可回復(fù)的，成熟的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)并以此形成了景觀的鑲嵌拼接。不良影響產(chǎn)生之前在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中存在的生物多樣性與它們的彈性有關(guān)。每一種物種滅絕，不論是局域的還是全球性的，代表了一種生態(tài)系統(tǒng)彈

73、性的潛在的損失。一個(gè)生物群落的消失將對(duì)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的功能造成非常惡劣的影響。</p><p>　　彈性是指在遭受不良影響之后恢復(fù)到穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)的能力。如果這種影響非常嚴(yán)重，它將造成生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的狀態(tài)發(fā)生改變，并且代表著該生態(tài)系統(tǒng)功能和物種組成的長期弱化。彈性能夠被一個(gè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)從受到破壞的狀態(tài)恢復(fù)到原始狀態(tài)的時(shí)間的長短衡量，也可以被恢復(fù)到未受破壞系統(tǒng)的生物網(wǎng)來衡量。</p><p>　　氣候能夠影響生態(tài)

74、系統(tǒng)的彈性，所以氣候變化能夠增強(qiáng)或者減弱回復(fù)率。就局部規(guī)模而言，彈性能夠被滲透，土壤濕度和養(yǎng)分循環(huán)的減少而削弱。因此，土壤結(jié)構(gòu)性的穩(wěn)定對(duì)于高度的彈性會(huì)起到很大的作用。【22】對(duì)于森林生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的可持續(xù)性使用和管理需要對(duì)于土壤和種子來源的保護(hù)以及將種子快速引入受損害的景觀。由于市場(chǎng)化的林業(yè)發(fā)展以及氣候變化帶來的損害，比如火災(zāi)或者蟲害，都將對(duì)森林造成巨大的損害，對(duì)于這類生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的恢復(fù)彈性的注意是非常迫切的。那些被破壞的且只具有較差恢復(fù)彈性的生

75、態(tài)系統(tǒng)需要人類采取積極地行動(dòng)（圖3.13），比如降低燃料負(fù)荷，對(duì)于腐蝕的保護(hù)和再度栽植。</p><p>　　颶風(fēng)對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)恢復(fù)彈性的破壞可以得到研究。公眾可以得到的遠(yuǎn)程數(shù)據(jù)（適當(dāng)分辨率的光譜化學(xué)分析輻射儀，MODIS）被用于觀測(cè)颶風(fēng)麗塔之后環(huán)境的恢復(fù)。麗塔在2005年9月24日登陸，造成了路易斯安那州西南部分城鎮(zhèn)，農(nóng)作物和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的巨大損失。這項(xiàng)研究建立了最初生物總量的基線，這一結(jié)果是來自收集的2000到20

76、05年之間的數(shù)據(jù)。對(duì)于幾個(gè)不同種類的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的初始生物總量在颶風(fēng)登陸后的12月內(nèi)進(jìn)行了測(cè)量，并以此與基線進(jìn)行對(duì)比。這項(xiàng)研究真切地展現(xiàn)了環(huán)境的恢復(fù)，這與恢復(fù)彈性有一些細(xì)微的差異因?yàn)橹粶y(cè)量了一種生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的功能。然而，這項(xiàng)研究說明了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的生物數(shù)量的回復(fù)速度在沿海岸的濕地和其他幾個(gè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)之中驚人的快速。例外是幾片常綠森林，它們一整年都在基線水平之下。最具恢復(fù)彈性的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)是灌木系統(tǒng)。在卡特里娜颶風(fēng)期間，它能夠承受風(fēng)暴帶來的損害?！?3】&

77、lt;/p><p>　　圖3.13 一架直升飛機(jī)在最近亞利桑那州內(nèi)失火的森林里投放900磅的稻草以控制火勢(shì)的蔓延。人們?cè)诔^25000英畝的區(qū)域內(nèi)投下了密度達(dá)到每英畝一噸的稻草以緩解亞利桑那州歷史上最大的火災(zāi)帶來的損失。</p><p>　　這項(xiàng)對(duì)于路易斯安那州的研究同樣表明了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)恢復(fù)彈性和人類系統(tǒng)的回復(fù)存在一定的聯(lián)系。與生態(tài)系統(tǒng)聯(lián)系的相關(guān)產(chǎn)業(yè)，比如漁業(yè)，農(nóng)業(yè)和林業(yè)，是恢復(fù)性最差的，因?yàn)樗?/p>

78、們與恢復(fù)性最差的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)相關(guān)。反之，具有恢復(fù)性的濕地和農(nóng)田與具有更大商業(yè)恢復(fù)性相關(guān)?！?3】</p><p><b>　　指標(biāo)</b></p><p>　　上面提到的研究是對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)完善程度的一個(gè)指示，其他方面也應(yīng)該與這一指示相匹配。生態(tài)系統(tǒng)恢復(fù)性甚至比生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的完善狀況更加復(fù)雜，難以闡述和觀測(cè)。為了簡化這一過程，壓縮成本和更好地讓居民與決策者進(jìn)行交流，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)指標(biāo)

79、簡化了數(shù)據(jù)收集，評(píng)估和交流。許多人很熟悉指標(biāo)物種的概念。指標(biāo)物種的出現(xiàn)，數(shù)量，分布被用來作為整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的代表。例如，一種當(dāng)?shù)氐氖w麥的狀態(tài)和數(shù)量被用來在加利福尼亞州作為指標(biāo)衡量人類對(duì)于一個(gè)自然區(qū)域的開發(fā)是否是可持續(xù)的因?yàn)樗鼘?duì)于踐踏十分敏感。</p><p>　　圖3.14 為了在綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施內(nèi)維護(hù)健全的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，移除入侵生物和其他調(diào)控措施需要得到實(shí)施。</p><p>　　指標(biāo)是能夠定義一個(gè)系

80、統(tǒng)的狀態(tài)或者發(fā)展趨勢(shì)的數(shù)值?？傮w而言，要衡量一個(gè)非常復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)和它們彼此之間的關(guān)系需要多個(gè)指標(biāo)。最重要和困難的任務(wù)是建立起一系列的指標(biāo)并且檢測(cè)它們是否可以作為描述一個(gè)系統(tǒng)的可靠依據(jù)。比如，一系列指標(biāo)被提出以衡量在佛羅里達(dá)州的蓋恩斯維爾市的都市樹林的健全性和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的供應(yīng)量。當(dāng)然，這一森林被定位在地圖上而且數(shù)據(jù)也從樣本圖表上收集得到。這些數(shù)據(jù)被輸入到一個(gè)廣泛應(yīng)用的森林健全性的模型（UFORE）之中，它評(píng)估了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的完善性，包括污染程

81、度帶來的影響。這一模型分析了各種土地使用所帶來的不同影響。最終的結(jié)果得到的結(jié)論是樹木覆蓋率，土壤pH數(shù)值和土壤有機(jī)物含量是用來衡量生態(tài)系統(tǒng)是否持續(xù)發(fā)展的非常重要的指標(biāo)。生態(tài)系統(tǒng)功能的重要性排列是隨地區(qū)的不同而變化的。在佛羅里達(dá)州，風(fēng)暴的減弱對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)而言是一個(gè)非常大的利好?？梢缘玫接?jì)量的指標(biāo)是在作為標(biāo)本區(qū)域內(nèi)的樹木的密度和覆蓋率。在其他地區(qū)，對(duì)于某一種特定污染的減弱能力將會(huì)是一種高度重要的職能而一種不同的指標(biāo)將被研究出來。這些標(biāo)本的關(guān)

82、注焦點(diǎn)集中在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)只能上，但是其他指標(biāo)也許會(huì)以生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的完善性為目標(biāo)。一旦指標(biāo)得到了批準(zhǔn)，它們將被</p><p>　　對(duì)于市政當(dāng)局而言，創(chuàng)建綠色的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施是與保護(hù)正滅絕的棲息地和走廊息息相關(guān)的，但也同樣需要新設(shè)計(jì)的景觀。城市中瀕臨滅絕的棲息地需要人類采取一些措施緩和污染以及人類活動(dòng)帶來的影響，這也同樣包括控制入侵物種（圖3.14）。新的或是翻新的景觀將能夠增大稀有的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，比如濕地，并建立起完善的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的

83、成分，比如提升土壤質(zhì)量和制備結(jié)構(gòu)?；謴?fù)性設(shè)計(jì)的景觀是依靠高密度的本地植被，土壤恢復(fù)能力，多變的地形，四季不斷的水源，局部氣候狀況和其他促進(jìn)該地區(qū)本土物種的措施實(shí)現(xiàn)的。然而，有利于環(huán)境的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施也需要檢測(cè)和管理。指標(biāo)物種應(yīng)被識(shí)別出來和觀測(cè)以評(píng)估景觀的再生和正在消失的棲息地的健全程度。接下來幾章將介紹許多這類植被和設(shè)計(jì)的課題，但是首先對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的職能和給人類帶來的利益的研究將在下一章之中得到呈現(xiàn)。</p><p>

84、<b>　　第四章</b></p><p><b>　　生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能</b></p><p><b>　　引言</b></p><p>　　與之前的幾章不同，接下來的內(nèi)同主要集中于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)潛在的職能和人類由此獲得的實(shí)際利益。當(dāng)人類直接或是間接地利用環(huán)境和它帶來的產(chǎn)品時(shí)，他們?cè)谙硎苌鷳B(tài)系統(tǒng)的職能。生態(tài)系

85、統(tǒng)職能帶來的產(chǎn)品的例子包括清潔的水，食物，木材，礦產(chǎn)，纖維等等。（圖4.1）。不帶來產(chǎn)品的職能包括水的凈化，廢物處理和一些無法觸及的情況，比如再生和景觀。生態(tài)系統(tǒng)利益是人類對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能的衡量?！?】</p><p>　　千年生態(tài)系統(tǒng)評(píng)估機(jī)構(gòu)將給人類帶來利益的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能分為四類：（1）支持；（2）調(diào)節(jié)；（3）供應(yīng)；和（4）文化。支持性生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能間接地是人類獲益但卻是其他幾個(gè)是人類直接從中獲益的職能的基礎(chǔ)?！?/p>

86、2】“生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能”是一種蓄意的帶有人類中心色彩的短語，它是以經(jīng)濟(jì)利益的角度描述自然系統(tǒng)。希望這種出于經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值的闡述能夠促進(jìn)對(duì)于完善的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的真正價(jià)值的更好的理解并引發(fā)對(duì)于它們的保護(hù)更多的調(diào)查。這一章將提供許多關(guān)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)利益的經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值的例子。</p><p>　　綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施將幾個(gè)元素組織起來以便給人類和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)帶來利益。這一章將闡述對(duì)于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能和收益的類型學(xué)，和它們的威脅，并且實(shí)在綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施位于市政和

87、景觀層面的背景下。有效管理生態(tài)系統(tǒng)以便實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)于特定生態(tài)系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)物的最大化的明確目的的手段，比如污水處理，將是接下來幾章的內(nèi)容。八種在圖1.5中注明的功能和它們之間的影響將在下文中得以討論。它們是根據(jù)千年生態(tài)系統(tǒng)評(píng)估組織的種類組織串聯(lián)起來的。</p><p>　　支持性生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能帶來的人類收益</p><p>　　海鮮，木材，草料和其它普遍地交換的自然產(chǎn)物是在比綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施更大的層面上提供的

88、自然的產(chǎn)品。然而，在城市中的網(wǎng)絡(luò)或者走廊，空間或者棲息地對(duì)于這些更加直接獲得的產(chǎn)品具有一定的影響。集體化的農(nóng)業(yè)和林業(yè)，以及特定的居民或是公共的景觀，依賴于人類對(duì)于支持性生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能的保持【3】，比如土壤生成和營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)循環(huán)。棲息地供應(yīng)，水循環(huán)和原始生產(chǎn)是另外三個(gè)與人類活動(dòng)相關(guān)的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)職能相關(guān)的例子。本章的一些題目將對(duì)于讀者而言非常熟悉因?yàn)樗鼈兣c之前討論過的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)健全性相關(guān)，但是這些對(duì)題目的討論是從一個(gè)以人類為中心的視角進(jìn)行的。<