以微型機(jī)器人為基礎(chǔ)的自動化顯微操作中英合體

1、<p>　　A microrobot-based automated micromanipulation station for</p><p>　　assembly of microsystems</p><p>　　Sergej Fatikow Mirko Benz</p><p><b>　　Abstract：</b><

2、/p><p>　　The development of new types of miniaturized and microrobots with human-like capabilities play an important role in different application tasks. One of the main problem of present-day research is, for

3、example, to assemble a whole microsystem from different microcomponents.This paper presents an automated micromanipulation desktop station including a piezoelectrically driven microrobot placed on the highly-precise x–y

4、stage of a light microscope, a CCD-camera as a local sensor subsystem, a laser </p><p>　　Keywords： Microrobots; Microassembly; Automated desktop station; Assembly planning; Piezoactuators</p><p>

5、;　　1.Introduction：</p><p>　　There is a growing need for miniaturized and microrobots worldwide. Due to the enormous breakthroughs in conventional robotics and in the microsystem technology (MST),everyone is

6、convinced that the development of remote-controlled or autonomous microrobots will lead to improvements in many areas. Above all, positive results are expected in medicine (microsurgery),manufacturing (microassembly, ins

7、pection and maintenance), biology (manipulation of cells) and testing/measuring technique (VLSI) . Me</p><p>　　endoscope. Biotechnology requires special microstructured active tools which are able to perform

8、 micromanipulations like the sorting or reunion of cells or the injection of a foreign body into a cell under a microscope. In the gene research and the environment technique （cells as indicators for harmful substances）,

9、 precise and gentle manipulation of single cells are also required. Industry and especially manufacturing and measuring techniques need highly sensitive testing methods in the μm-range</p><p>　　individual co

10、mponents. The assembly of microsystems, i.e., the non-destructible transport, precise manipulation or exact positioning of microcomponents is becoming one of the most important applications in microrobotics.</p>&

11、lt;p>　　2. Manipulation of microobjects：</p><p>　　The availability of highly precise assembly processes will make it easier to economically realize operable microsystems. In order to efficiently produce mi

12、crosystems and components in lot sizes or by mass-production techniques, it is absolutely necessary to introduce flexible, automated, precise and fast microassembly stations. Different concepts are being followed to do m

13、icromanipulation for particular</p><p>　　classes of application.</p><p>　　Purely manual micromanipulation is the most often used method today. In medicine and biological research, it is used exc

14、lusively. Even in industry, microassembly tasks are very often carried out by specially trained technicians, who, for example, preposition assembly parts using screws and springs, then position the parts with tiny hammer

15、s and tweezers, and finally fasten them in the desired position. However, with increasing component miniaturization, the tolerances become smaller and smaller, </p><p>　　The application of partially automati

16、c micromanipulation systems of conventional size, which are teleoperated; thereby, the hand motions of the human operator are translated into finer 3D motions for the manipulators of the manipulation system by means of a

17、 joystick or mouse. Here, the dexterity of the human hand is supported by sophisticated techniques. However, the fundamental problem of the resolution of the fine motion and of the speed remain, since the motion of the t

18、ool is a direct imitati</p><p>　　The use of automated multifunctional micromanipulation desktop stations’ supported by miniaturized flexible robots which employ MST-specific direct- drive principles. These r

19、obots could be mobile and are able perform manipulations in different work areas. The transport and micromanipulation units performing the assembly may be integrated onto one chip. As opposed to the aforementioned microm

20、anipulation technique, there is no direct connection between the operator’s hands and the robot. The assem</p><p>　　capabilities. Many microrobots can be active at the same time in a desktop station.</p&g

21、t;<p>　　The use of many flexible nanorobot systems which solve the manipulation tasks in close cooperation. Here, the robot size is comparable to that of the manipulated object. This concept could be based on the

22、human behavior, but its realization lies in the distant future. </p><p>　　In general, manipulations vary from an application to another. However, approximately the same operation sequences are used in every

23、case. They are: grip, transport, position, release, adjust, fix in place and processing steps like cutting, soldering, gluing, removal of impurities, etc. In order to be able to carry out these operations, corresponding

24、tools are needed, such as microknives, microneedles to affix objects, microdosing jets for gluing, microlaser devices for soldering, welding or cut</p><p>　　It should be mentioned that it is not always possi

25、ble to adapt conventional manipulation methods to the demands of the microworld. A major problem is the effect of various forces which is completely different from the macroworld. Gravitation only plays a minor role in t

26、he microworld, but attractive forces,such as electrostatic forces or Van-der-Waals forces, are significant. Liquid surface tension can also act as an attractive force in micromanipulations if humidity is high or if a man

27、ipulator i</p><p>　　The performance and degree of intelligence of a micromanipulation station is low for a manual operation; it improves by going to a teleoperation and further to an automation; this is simi

28、lar with conventional robots. Most micromanipulation investigations today focus on the improvement obtained by going from a purely manual to a teleoperated system【2–4】. As previously mentioned, attempts are being made to

29、 make the transmission of effects from the microworld to the operator as realistic as possibl</p><p>　　3. Development of a flexible micromanipulation Station： </p><p>　　Typically, in a conventio

30、nal automatic or semiautomatic assembly station, standardized mechanical parts are assembled in well-defined work positions. The robots performing the work are usually of multi-axis arm design or they are gantry systems,

31、usually driven by DC motors. Today, it is being attempted to use these type of familiar systems for handling and assembling of miniaturized components with dimensions in the millimeter range. For example, a modular micro

32、assembly system with four degrees o</p><p>　　A new concept for an automated micromanipulation desktop station is now being investigated 【7】. The main part of the station are the piezoelectric microrobots whi

33、ch were presented in Refs.【8,9】.Each robot has a micromanipulating unit integrated in a mobile platform, which makes it capable of moving and manipulating. Tools can be easily exchanged. These robot properties are good p

34、reconditions for the complete sensor supported automation of manipulation processes in the microassembly station. Owin</p><p>　　The operations of the microassembly station may be described as follows.</p&

35、gt;<p>　　The parts are first separated and placed into magazines in order to have them correctly positioned for automated assembly. This is necessary, since microcomponents are often delivered as bulk material. Th

36、is step can also be automated in a powerful microassembly station, to avoid the expensive manual handling.</p><p>　　A microrobot removes a micromechanical component from the magazine and transfers it to a pr

37、ocessing cell where the component can then be prepared for microassembly by other microrobots. In this step, adhesives or solder can be applied, adjustment marks taken, or other simple operations carried out.</p>

38、<p>　　After the part has been processed, it is gripped by a robot and brought to a microassembly cell.</p><p>　　If necessary, the same operations are repeated many times in order to fetch the other nece

39、ssary components from a supply container and prepare them for assembly.</p><p>　　All components are positioned correctly, affixed to each other and adjusted. Thereafter, they are joined together by various i

40、nterconnection techniques, e.g., laser spot welding, gluing, insertion, wire bonding, etc.</p><p>　　After assembly, a robot brings the finished component either to another work station or a microassembly cel

41、l for further processing or to an inspection cell, where all functions of the microsystem are being tested. Finally, the finished system is transported to a storage. </p><p>　　The entire assembly process occ

42、urs in the desktop station under an automated light-optical microscope which is equipped with a RS232-standard interface. The sphere of operation includes a highly precise positioning table with two translational degrees

43、 of freedom （x–y plane ）and a glass plate fixed on top of it. By controlling the movements of the table, each individual working cell on the glass plate can be brought under the microscope. The station has a central comp

44、uter （Pentium PC） which is us</p><p>　　In order to automatically control the manipulation processes in the microassembly station, there must be sensor feedback. Therefore, the light-optical microscope is equ

45、ipped with a CCD camera. The camera and the microscope form the local sensor system with the help of which the position of the microobjects and the robot tools must be determined. For this it supplies visual information

46、on the robot tools and the microobjects to the central computer. The gross position of the robots on the glass p</p><p>　　4. Planning of the microassembly：</p><p>　　The above description of micr

47、oassembly station activities is very general and perhaps makes the assembly process sound too simple, but many problems must first be solved. After a microsystem has been designed, all tools and techniques necessary for

48、its automated assembly should be determined, so that the microassembly station can be set up for a taskspecific operation sequence. The specified techniques and tools must take the geometry of the components of the micro

49、system into consideration, as w</p><p>　　As mentioned, for more complex assembly tasks several robots must be used together in the desktop station. Individual robots can, for example, be specialized</p>

50、;<p>　　to take care of one or more certain assembly operations. In this case, the robots carry out their manipulation tasks in a sequence which is defined during the planning phase. For more complex operations, ro

51、bots can be pooled together to do simultaneous actions with the help of several different tools (e.g., transferring or gripping of objects) . In this case, the operator’s commands are no longer transmitted one-by-one to

52、the manipulator arms, but are applied to the entire multirobot system, e.g</p><p>　　The main problems of the practical realization of the micromanipulation desktop station employing several microrobots are c

53、aused by the assembly planning on the uppermost control level, the task-specific distribution of the necessary robots and tools, as well as their movements and forces, which should allow the assembly process to run error

54、 and collision-free. The planning system of the station, which is being developed 【12】, consists of three main module: system interface, assembly task planne</p><p>　　The actions generated by the assembly ta

55、sk planner are then particularized to the specific conditions in the working area by the assembly execution planner. The execution planner generates a motion sequence of the platform and the endeffectors for each microro

56、bot which is necessary to execute the planned actions. The motion planning for each microrobot is performed by its own execution subplanner. At this planning level, three types of collision-free motion are distinguished:

57、 gross motions of th</p><p>　　5. Conclusions and future works：</p><p>　　Coming to a conclusion, it can be stated that presently, no easy solutions exists for assembling microparts, especially wh

58、en taking into consideration the hardware and software and the costs involved. It can be clearly seen, however, that the availability of versatile automated microassembly stations will greatly contribute to the long-awai

59、ted industrial breakthrough of MST. A current industrial success that encourages the development of MST is the rapid progress of microelectronics, where autom</p><p>　　Such microassembly stations need an ada

60、ptable and hierarchically distributed control system, which make it possible to quickly initiate a cooperation to an immediate request between the operator and a robot or between different robots. It is nearly impossible

61、 to explicitly program every possible scenario that can happen in the complex operation surrounding. In a flexible system, the individual robots should be able to adapt their behavior to the surrounding and react flexibl

62、y to new situations. </p><p>　　Different simulation tools can be helpful in assembly planning. In order to be able to evaluate the assembly task and choose the best strategy, various operating sequences can

63、be tried out by using CAD models of the microrobots and workpieces. Evaluation criteria could be freedom of collision, best use of resources, duration of assembly, compliance with technological parameters, etc. However,

64、it is not always possible to get help from a simulation module. As long as there is only path planning i</p><p>　　Acknowledgements：</p><p>　　This research work was performed at the Institute for

65、 Real-Time Computer Systems and Robotics （Headed by Prof. Dr. U. Rembold, Prof. Dr. H. Worn, and Prof. Dr. R. Dillmann） , Faculty for Computer Science, University of Karlsruhe, 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany.</p><p

66、>　　References：</p><p>　　【1】F. Arai, D. Ando, T. Fukuda, Y. Nonoda, T. Oota, Micro manipulation based on micro physics, Proc. of IEEErRSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems IROS , Pittsburgh, PA,

67、 1995, pp. 236–241.</p><p>　　【2】M. Mitsuishi, K. Kobayashi, T. Nagao, Y. Hatamura, T. Sato, B. Kramer, Development of tele-operated micro-handlingrmachining system based on information transformation, Proc.

68、of the IEEErRSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots</p><p>　　and Systems IROS , Yokohama, 1993, pp. 1473–1478.</p><p>　　【3】H. Morishita, Y. Hatamura, Development of ultra precise manipulator system

69、 for future nanotechnology, Proc. of Int. IARP Workshop on Micro Robotics and Systems, Karlsruhe, 1993, pp. 34–42.</p><p>　　【4】T. Sato, T. Kameya, H. Miyazaki, Y. Hatamura, Hand–eye system in nano manipulati

70、on world, Proc. of Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation, Nagoya, 1995, pp. 59–66.</p><p>　　【5】M. Horie, H. Funabashi, K. Ikegami, A study on micro force sensors for microhandling systems, Microsyst. Technol

71、. 1 3 1995 105–110.</p><p>　　【6】U. Gengenbach, Automatic assembly of microoptical components, Proc. of SPIE International Symposium on Intelligent Systems and Advanced Manufacturing, Boston, MA, Vol. 2906, 1

72、996, pp. 141–150.</p><p>　　【7】S. Fatikow, A microrobot-based automatic desk-station for assembly of micromachines, Proc. of the 12th Int. Conf. on CADrCAM Robotics and Factories of the Future, London, 1996,

73、pp. 174–179.</p><p>　　【8】B. Magnussen, S. Fatikow, U. Rembold, Micro actuators: principles and applications, in: M. Glesner Ed. , Aufgaben der Informatik in der Mikrosystemtechnik, Schloß Dagstuhl, 1994

74、.</p><p>　　【9】S. Fatikow, B. Magnussen, U. Rembold, A piezoelectric mobile robot for handling of microobjects, Proc. of the International Symposium on Microsystems, Intelligent Materials and Robots, Sendai,

75、1995, pp. 189–192.</p><p>　　【10】B. Magnussen, A parallel control computer structure for complex high speed applications, Proc. of the 1st IEEE Int. Conf. on Engineering of Complex Computer Systems, FL, 1995,

76、 pp. 385–388.</p><p>　　【11】S. Hirai, S. Sakane, K. Takase, Cooperative task execution technology for multiple micro robot systems, Proc. of the IARP Workshop on Micromachine Technologies and Systems, Tokyo,

77、1993, pp. 32–37.</p><p>　　【12】S. Fatikow, R. Munassypov, An intelligent micromanipulation cell for industrial and biomedical applications based on a piezoelectric microrobot, Proc. of the 5th Int. Conference

78、 on Micro Electro, Opto, Mechanical Systems and Components MST , Berlin, 1996, pp. 826–828.</p><p>　　Sergej Fatikow, born on March 5, 1960 in Ufa, Russia, studied computer science and electrical engineering

79、at the Ufa Aviation Technical University in Russia, where he received his doctoral degree in 1988 with work on intelligent control of complex nonlinear systems. Then he moved to the Institute for Real-Time Computer Syste

80、ms and Robotics at the University of Karlsruhe in Germany where he is working as an assistant professor.Since 1994, he is a leader of the</p><p>　　research group ‘Miniature and Micro Robots’. His research

81、 interestsinclude different aspects of microrobotics, microassembly, intelligent planning and control in microassembly cells, and neuro-fuzzy-based information processing.</p><p>　　Mirko Benz was born in Off

82、enburg, Germany in 1969. He studied computer science at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany from 1990–1996 where hespecialized in CIM Computer Integrated Manufacturing and AI ArtificialIntelligence and took part in a tr

83、aineeshipsity of South Australia, Australia. As a student member of up ‘Miniature and MicroRobots’ at the Institute of Real-TimeComputer Systems and Robotics, he has contributed to the investigation

84、 ofmicrosystem technology and micr</p><p>　　以微型機(jī)器人為基礎(chǔ)的自動化顯微操作</p><p><b>　　裝置為微系統(tǒng)裝配</b></p><p><b>　　摘要：</b></p><p>　　小型化的新類型的發(fā)展和智能型微型機(jī)器人在不同的應(yīng)用程序任

85、務(wù)中扮演著重要角色。現(xiàn)在研究的主要問題之一是,例如，裝配來自不同的微成份的一個(gè)整個(gè)的微系統(tǒng)。這篇論文說明一個(gè)包括放在精密x-y坐標(biāo)的光學(xué)顯微鏡上的一個(gè)壓電驅(qū)動機(jī)器人的自動化顯微操作桌面裝置，一部電壓耦合元件照相機(jī)作為一個(gè)局部的感知器次系統(tǒng)，一個(gè)激光感知器單位作為一個(gè)整體的感知器次系統(tǒng)，額外配置一臺帶有光學(xué)抓幀器的奔騰電腦。這個(gè)微型機(jī)器人有三壓電驅(qū)動支架和兩個(gè)活動自如的機(jī)械手作為終結(jié)者。它能在顯微鏡下對很小物體執(zhí)行精密的處理（準(zhǔn)確度10n

86、m以下）和非破壞性的運(yùn)輸（以若干nm/s的速度）。為了自動地執(zhí)行操縱，一個(gè)控制系統(tǒng),包括一個(gè)任務(wù)計(jì)劃標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和一個(gè)即時(shí)實(shí)施標(biāo)準(zhǔn), 正在被發(fā)展。</p><p><b>　　關(guān)鍵詞：</b></p><p>　　微型機(jī)器人 顯微裝配 自動化桌面裝置 裝配計(jì)劃 壓力致動器</p><p><b>　　1 介紹：</b>&l

87、t;/p><p>　　全世界對小型化和微型機(jī)器人的需求在增加。由于巨大的斷缺，在傳統(tǒng)的跡器人學(xué)和微系統(tǒng)工藝學(xué)中，每個(gè)人都相信遙控的發(fā)展或者自主的機(jī)器人將在許多領(lǐng)域引導(dǎo)進(jìn)步。最重要者，積極的結(jié)果在藥 (顯微外科) 被期望,制作 (微型裝配，檢查和養(yǎng)護(hù)), 生物 (細(xì)胞的操縱) 和測試的/測定的技巧 (VLSI)。藥是一種得益于微型機(jī)器人學(xué)最多的應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域之一。關(guān)注多在人工的器官 (義肢學(xué)) ，腹腔鏡，可深植的藥物輸出系統(tǒng)

88、 (診斷和治療體系) ，可視顯微手術(shù),等等。在過去的幾年間，極小探入式手術(shù)在藥學(xué)領(lǐng)域獲得極大的發(fā)展。更小和更多易曲的有效內(nèi)視鏡被需要去替代人類的手，回應(yīng)外部的事件, 經(jīng)過自然的身體孔刺入一個(gè)車體或者一個(gè)船舶或者遠(yuǎn)距控制的一個(gè)小切口,在這些地方他們執(zhí)行復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)場測量和操縱。妥善符合這些需求，微處理機(jī), 一些感知器和引動器, 一個(gè)光源和可能地一個(gè)圖像處理單元應(yīng)該被整合進(jìn)入一智能的內(nèi)視鏡。生物技術(shù)需要特別的有微細(xì)構(gòu)造的有效工具,這種工具能夠執(zhí)

89、行如在顯微鏡下細(xì)胞的分類或重聚或異物的細(xì)胞注入的顯微操作。在基因研究和環(huán)境技術(shù)（細(xì)胞作為有害物質(zhì)的指示劑），單一細(xì)胞的精密的和溫和操縱也被需要。工業(yè)和特別的制作和</p><p><b>　　2 微物質(zhì)的操作：</b></p><p>　　高度精密的總成程序的可行性將會在經(jīng)濟(jì)上比較容易地實(shí)現(xiàn)可實(shí)施的微系統(tǒng)。為了有效地生產(chǎn)大尺寸的微系統(tǒng)和組件或者藉著大量生產(chǎn)技巧，了解有

90、柔性的，自動化的，精密的和快速微裝配的裝置是完全必要的。不同的觀念正在被接受去為應(yīng)用程序的類別做顯微操作。純粹手動的顯微操作是當(dāng)今最常用的方法. 在藥和生物的研究中，它獨(dú)有地被利用。尤其在工業(yè)，微型裝配任務(wù)時(shí)常由特別訓(xùn)練的技術(shù)員運(yùn)行，他們總成零件使用螺絲和彈簧，然后用極小的錘子和鑷子放置零件, 而且最后在被需要的位置中夾緊它們。然而，藉由遞增組件的小型化，公差變得越來越小，而且人類手的能力不再精確。</p><p&g

91、t;　　傳統(tǒng)尺度的部份自動顯微操作系統(tǒng)的應(yīng)用程序, 是可視的; 藉此，人類操作者的手動作被為操縱系統(tǒng)的操縱者藉由一個(gè)搖桿或鼠標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)檩^相似的3D立體動作。在這里，人類手的技巧由復(fù)雜技術(shù)支持。然而，相似動作和速度保持是需要解決的基本問題,因?yàn)楣ぞ叩膭幼魇遣僮髡叩氖值闹苯幽７隆?lt;/p><p>　　自動化的多功能的顯微操作桌面裝置的使用被應(yīng)用特別微型操作技術(shù)的直接傳動原則的小型化的柔性機(jī)械手支持。這些機(jī)器人應(yīng)該是移動

92、的和能在不同的工作區(qū)域中執(zhí)行操縱。運(yùn)輸和執(zhí)行總成的顯微操作單位可能在一個(gè)晶片之上被整合。相反上述的顯微操作技巧, 沒有操作者的手和機(jī)器人之間的直接連結(jié)?？偝刹襟E可能與閉環(huán)控制運(yùn)算法則的輔助一起運(yùn)行。人類為小型化總成機(jī)構(gòu)分配所有的任務(wù)，并且藉由如此執(zhí)行，試著為他的有限顯微操作能力作差補(bǔ)。許多微型機(jī)器人在一個(gè)桌面裝置中能同時(shí)有效。</p><p>　　解決在緊密合作中的操縱任務(wù)的許多柔性的納米機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的使用。在這里

93、，機(jī)器人尺度對被操縱的物件是可比較的。這一項(xiàng)觀念應(yīng)該以人類行為學(xué)為基礎(chǔ), 但是在遙遠(yuǎn)的將來它必將實(shí)現(xiàn)。</p><p>　　大體上，操縱從一個(gè)應(yīng)用程序執(zhí)行到另外一個(gè)。然而，大約相同的運(yùn)作順序在每個(gè)情形都可以被用。 他們是: 手柄, 運(yùn)輸,放置,放松,調(diào)節(jié), 適當(dāng)?shù)毓潭?，和加工步驟像切削, 錫焊, 黏合, 雜質(zhì)的排除, 等等。為了能夠運(yùn)行這些運(yùn)作, 對應(yīng)的工具像微小刀具，微小滾針附黏物件，微小劑量噴射,微激光方法對

94、于軟焊，熔接或者切削，微小抓爪器，微小刮刀的不同類型，調(diào)整用工具,等等被需要。微小抓爪器扮演一個(gè)特別的角色,因?yàn)樗麄兒苡绊憴C(jī)械手的操縱能力。微小抓爪器能夾緊, 作磨擦力聯(lián)接或者黏附在材料之上,依賴物件的物理學(xué)和幾何學(xué)性質(zhì)。使一個(gè)夾子配合物件的形狀跟蹤抓緊是在顯微世界中最好的解決方法, 甚至以韌性為代價(jià)。這允許一個(gè)有復(fù)雜形狀的工作區(qū)的處理，如一個(gè)齒輪。藉此，夾子安全地附上零件的等高線。 對于很小，光滑的零件，一個(gè)吸取移液器可能是一個(gè)實(shí)際的

95、工具。如果工作件的上表面由于技術(shù)的原因不能被接觸或者抓緊, 它能被一個(gè)移液器孔對應(yīng)模型進(jìn)行保護(hù)。 對于包括易碎零件的等高線定位和磨擦力聯(lián)接的操縱，用軟式塑料做成的柔性夾子替代金屬夾子被偏愛。由于在自動化的顯微操作系統(tǒng)中采用特別任務(wù)抓緊工具的種類,一個(gè)適當(dāng)?shù)膴A子交換器系</p><p>　　應(yīng)該提及一點(diǎn)，它不總是可能使傳統(tǒng)的操縱方法適應(yīng)顯微世界的需量。 一個(gè)主要的問題是完全地不同于顯微世界的各種不同力的效應(yīng)。萬有引

96、力只在顯微世界扮演一個(gè)較小的角色,但是，諸如靜電力和范德華力之類的引力的作用是不容忽視的。 如果濕度是高的或者一個(gè)操縱者是潮濕的，液體表面拉力也能在顯微操作中擔(dān)任一個(gè)吸引力。這個(gè)不尋常的對力的靈敏度在一個(gè)顯微操作裝置中可能是非常影響的。例如, 對機(jī)器人來說，抓緊而且操縱一個(gè)物件要比后來釋放物件容易些。另一方面, 如此的一個(gè)黏附力能被用來開發(fā)能基本上不同于普通的機(jī)械和空氣的方法的新的抓緊方法。在叁考文獻(xiàn)【1】中,為附著的抓緊提供了一些有趣

97、的想法,像是電荷在一個(gè)操縱者或濕的特別微型機(jī)械孔的一個(gè)夾子表面上。</p><p>　　顯微操作裝置的性能和智力度作為一個(gè)手動式是低的; 它通過介入可視操作和進(jìn)一步的針對一個(gè)自動化得到改良; 這和傳統(tǒng)的機(jī)械手相似。今天大多數(shù)的顯微操作調(diào)查焦點(diǎn)集中在從從純粹手動到可視操作系統(tǒng)獲得的改進(jìn)【2-4】。如先前提到的,人們正在盡可能現(xiàn)實(shí)的將結(jié)果從顯微世界向操作者進(jìn)行傳輸。很重要的是，操作者在他的視域中有整個(gè)的現(xiàn)場而且他能見