簡(jiǎn)介：農(nóng)村中小學(xué)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的開(kāi)展困難及其對(duì)策的文獻(xiàn)綜述農(nóng)村中小學(xué)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的開(kāi)展困難及其對(duì)策的文獻(xiàn)綜述前言隨著國(guó)家政策的大力倡導(dǎo)，教育以單一的應(yīng)試模式向多元的素質(zhì)教育模式過(guò)渡，教育方式也轉(zhuǎn)向講理論教育與實(shí)踐教育相結(jié)合，為此，多種多樣的綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)也鱗次櫛比的展開(kāi)。然而，由于農(nóng)村和城市的教育條件與水平的不同，綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)也存在著很大差別，農(nóng)村中小學(xué)的綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程的開(kāi)展與實(shí)施有很大困難，其中師資缺乏、硬件設(shè)施不足、課程學(xué)科化、活動(dòng)形式化和評(píng)價(jià)落后化等都制約著農(nóng)村綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的實(shí)施。因此，近年來(lái)，教育界對(duì)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)實(shí)施的關(guān)注的日益密切的同時(shí)，綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程在農(nóng)村中小學(xué)的落實(shí)尤其受到重視。而農(nóng)村綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的開(kāi)展需要一個(gè)從上至下的系統(tǒng)來(lái)支持，教育管理部門(mén)、學(xué)校領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、教師、學(xué)生各負(fù)其責(zé)，各歸其位，成了各界對(duì)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)在農(nóng)村中小學(xué)實(shí)施的重點(diǎn)已成為共識(shí)。綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)在農(nóng)村中小學(xué)的開(kāi)展?fàn)顩r已經(jīng)成為新的教育熱點(diǎn)。正文綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程是在教師引導(dǎo)下,學(xué)生自主進(jìn)行的綜合性學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng),是基于學(xué)生的經(jīng)驗(yàn),密切聯(lián)系學(xué)生自身生活和社會(huì)實(shí)際,體現(xiàn)對(duì)知識(shí)的綜合應(yīng)用實(shí)踐性課程。它包括研究性學(xué)習(xí)、社區(qū)服務(wù)與社會(huì)實(shí)踐、勞動(dòng)與技術(shù)教育等領(lǐng)域,并滲透信息技術(shù)教育。因此，綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程強(qiáng)調(diào)超越教材、課堂和學(xué)校的局限,在活動(dòng)時(shí)空上向自然環(huán)境、學(xué)生的生活領(lǐng)域和社會(huì)活動(dòng)領(lǐng)域延伸,密切學(xué)生與自然、與社會(huì)、與生活的聯(lián)系。所以，綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)在農(nóng)村的開(kāi)展存在種種主觀和客觀的困難。一、農(nóng)村中小學(xué)開(kāi)展綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的困難綜述首先，上級(jí)教育管理部門(mén)及學(xué)校對(duì)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程開(kāi)展的制度支持缺失。由于全日制普通高中課程計(jì)劃（實(shí)驗(yàn)稿）所規(guī)定的每周平均3課時(shí)，在很多農(nóng)村學(xué)校都不安排或者安排了也是形同虛設(shè)，被挪作“主科”所用。沒(méi)有活動(dòng)經(jīng)費(fèi)，沒(méi)有安全責(zé)任的歸屬，研究性學(xué)習(xí)的外出調(diào)查、參觀等活動(dòng)就不會(huì)實(shí)現(xiàn)。特別是現(xiàn)在，“領(lǐng)導(dǎo)談安全色變”的管理之下，更使教師對(duì)“組織學(xué)生外出采風(fēng)”提都不敢提，教師本身也唯恐“引火燒身”。其次，學(xué)校的辦學(xué)條件對(duì)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)的開(kāi)展有一定的限制。綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)需要大量的資料和信息供學(xué)生查閱，勞動(dòng)技術(shù)教育要將理論與實(shí)踐相結(jié)合，不能片面地只學(xué)習(xí)書(shū)本上的勞動(dòng)技術(shù)，而農(nóng)村中小學(xué)。由于學(xué)校辦學(xué)經(jīng)費(fèi)十分緊張，使得學(xué)校內(nèi)部的資源如圖結(jié)束語(yǔ)農(nóng)村中小學(xué)作為教育主體的重要組成部分，同時(shí)也是教育的薄弱環(huán)節(jié)，越來(lái)越受到各界的關(guān)注和重視，而綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)作為近年來(lái)的教育熱點(diǎn)問(wèn)題在農(nóng)村的開(kāi)展也存在著很大的忽視或困難，而加強(qiáng)對(duì)農(nóng)村綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)開(kāi)展的關(guān)注和重視，有利于農(nóng)村學(xué)生的思維多元化開(kāi)闊和發(fā)展，改善農(nóng)村中小學(xué)的課程結(jié)構(gòu),更好地落實(shí)農(nóng)村基礎(chǔ)教育的培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)，縮小城鄉(xiāng)教育差異，促進(jìn)農(nóng)村教育模式的良性發(fā)展，使我國(guó)整體的教育水平得以提高。參考文獻(xiàn)潘景峰等什么是綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程基礎(chǔ)教育課程改革提要郭曉琴農(nóng)村學(xué)校綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程實(shí)施難的原因及其對(duì)策文史博覽2010年3月劉紅姣城市初中綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程實(shí)施現(xiàn)狀調(diào)查D湖南師范大學(xué)2007年度碩士學(xué)位論文葉開(kāi)明、程瑋、董衛(wèi)花農(nóng)村中小學(xué)開(kāi)設(shè)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課的困境與出路教學(xué)與管理2011年1月20日王嘉毅、楊學(xué)良、趙明仁農(nóng)村中小學(xué)開(kāi)設(shè)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)?價(jià)值、問(wèn)題與對(duì)策課程教材教法第25卷第7期張華論“綜合實(shí)踐”課程的本質(zhì)全球教育展望2001年第8期王明祥立足農(nóng)村實(shí)際積極開(kāi)展綜合實(shí)踐課程基礎(chǔ)教育課程2005年第5期蔣偉峰農(nóng)村學(xué)校綜合實(shí)踐課存在的問(wèn)題與對(duì)策基礎(chǔ)教育參考2004年5月徐燕萍學(xué)習(xí)視域中的綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程文化和課程管理江蘇教育研究2011年2月童順平楊李娜綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)融合項(xiàng)目評(píng)價(jià)的意義、體系及實(shí)踐2011年1月李劍推進(jìn)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程深入開(kāi)展的策略研究現(xiàn)代教育學(xué)普教研究2011年第1期葉蕾小學(xué)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)課程資源開(kāi)發(fā)的意義與途徑2011年第2期

簡(jiǎn)介：我國(guó)數(shù)字出版與傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型綜述我國(guó)數(shù)字出版與傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型綜述摘要摘要數(shù)字出版是出版業(yè)發(fā)展的趨勢(shì)，是傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)在內(nèi)容和形式上的延伸和拓展。它作為新興的載體形式給出版業(yè)帶來(lái)了另一番發(fā)展前景，傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)的數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型也引起了廣泛的關(guān)注。本文將對(duì)我國(guó)數(shù)字出版和傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)的轉(zhuǎn)型研究作以綜述。關(guān)鍵詞關(guān)鍵詞數(shù)字出版；傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)；轉(zhuǎn)型隨著信息技術(shù)和互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的迅速普及，網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)催生了許多新的產(chǎn)業(yè)。2010年被業(yè)界認(rèn)為是中國(guó)的“數(shù)字出版元年”，數(shù)字出版產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展迅猛。它的出現(xiàn)不僅大大豐富了出版物的內(nèi)容和形式，也改變了傳統(tǒng)出版物的生產(chǎn)方式和消費(fèi)理念。何為“數(shù)字出版”數(shù)字出版的概念是相對(duì)于傳統(tǒng)出版而言的。傳統(tǒng)出版一般是指紙質(zhì)出版活動(dòng)，而數(shù)字出版從廣義上說(shuō)，只要是用二進(jìn)制這種技術(shù)手段對(duì)出版的任何環(huán)節(jié)進(jìn)行的操作，都是數(shù)字出版的一部分。它包括原創(chuàng)作品數(shù)字化、編輯加工的數(shù)字化、印刷復(fù)制的數(shù)字化、發(fā)行銷售的數(shù)字化和閱讀消費(fèi)的數(shù)字化。1數(shù)字出版的優(yōu)勢(shì)顯而易見(jiàn)海量信息、載體形式多樣、傳輸速度快、檢索方便、更新迅速而又互動(dòng)性強(qiáng)等。2它以此贏得越來(lái)越多受眾的青睞，同時(shí)也為出版企業(yè)提供了更為廣闊的發(fā)展空間。本文將主要介紹我國(guó)數(shù)字出版業(yè)的現(xiàn)狀、發(fā)展瓶頸及未來(lái)發(fā)展趨勢(shì)與在數(shù)字出版的沖擊下我國(guó)傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)的數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型問(wèn)題。一、一、我國(guó)的數(shù)字出版業(yè)我國(guó)的數(shù)字出版業(yè)（一）我國(guó)數(shù)字出版業(yè)的現(xiàn)狀我國(guó)數(shù)字出版雖然起步較晚，但在信息化進(jìn)城加快和新興媒體的推動(dòng)下，數(shù)字出版產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展迅速，數(shù)字化出版物的市場(chǎng)空前提高。我國(guó)數(shù)字出版的整體規(guī)模從2000年的159億元發(fā)展到2006年的200億元，2007年的360億元，2008年的530億元人民幣，2009年的750億元，首次超過(guò)了傳統(tǒng)書(shū)報(bào)刊出版物的總值。2010年整體收入達(dá)到900億元以上，計(jì)劃到2015年將達(dá)到1800億元。3出版形態(tài)也多種多樣，目前已經(jīng)過(guò)形成了電子書(shū)、數(shù)字報(bào)紙、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)期刊、網(wǎng)絡(luò)游戲、網(wǎng)絡(luò)動(dòng)漫、播客、手機(jī)出版等形態(tài)。4在數(shù)字出版業(yè)界的積極探索下，網(wǎng)絡(luò)新聞與資訊出版服務(wù)、電子書(shū)、專業(yè)文獻(xiàn)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)、網(wǎng)游、數(shù)字動(dòng)漫出版、網(wǎng)絡(luò)期刊雜志、手機(jī)書(shū)、閱讀器等領(lǐng)域的業(yè)務(wù)模式逐漸清晰，形成了較為穩(wěn)定的產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈。5合，進(jìn)而實(shí)現(xiàn)“一種內(nèi)容、多種載體、復(fù)合出版”的發(fā)展局面。1414跨界化整合。實(shí)力大的出版企業(yè)向產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈的下游滲入，由內(nèi)容提供商演變?yōu)閮?nèi)容聚合商或平臺(tái)服務(wù)商；技術(shù)供應(yīng)商、網(wǎng)絡(luò)運(yùn)營(yíng)商等進(jìn)入出版產(chǎn)業(yè)領(lǐng)域，通過(guò)實(shí)現(xiàn)兼并重組，擠壓傳統(tǒng)出版企業(yè)的上游生存空間；各大出版企業(yè)互通內(nèi)容資源，以此整合成產(chǎn)品與IT企業(yè)、移動(dòng)運(yùn)營(yíng)商、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)企業(yè)等抗衡；產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈的上下游產(chǎn)業(yè)實(shí)現(xiàn)階段性有限合作，形成利益共同體。1515內(nèi)容價(jià)值的核心地位不會(huì)改變。技術(shù)供應(yīng)商能夠給予內(nèi)容提供商最先進(jìn)的技術(shù)生產(chǎn)，但絕不可能代替內(nèi)容的創(chuàng)造價(jià)值。1616數(shù)字出版最有價(jià)值的還是內(nèi)容，即所謂的“內(nèi)容為王”。內(nèi)容品牌力與內(nèi)容生產(chǎn)力在任何時(shí)候都是數(shù)字出版的核心競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。二、二、傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型隨著信息技術(shù)的發(fā)展，數(shù)字出版出現(xiàn)并得到了快速發(fā)展，這對(duì)傳統(tǒng)出版造成很大的沖擊，使得出版的載體形式、運(yùn)營(yíng)模式亦或是傳播方式都發(fā)生了巨大的變化。目前，中國(guó)的出版業(yè)正在經(jīng)歷著數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型。（一）傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型的現(xiàn)狀在數(shù)字出版業(yè)發(fā)展一路高歌的背景下，傳統(tǒng)出版社迫于自身的巨大壓力，也開(kāi)始涉足數(shù)字出版。首先，政府部門(mén)主導(dǎo)，新聞出版總署成立了重大工程領(lǐng)導(dǎo)小組辦公室進(jìn)行相關(guān)項(xiàng)目的落實(shí)，推動(dòng)傳統(tǒng)出版業(yè)數(shù)字化轉(zhuǎn)型。傳統(tǒng)出版單位也紛紛成立了數(shù)字出版部、網(wǎng)絡(luò)部、信息中心或創(chuàng)辦網(wǎng)站。其次，傳統(tǒng)出版單位也參與到了出版電子圖書(shū)和開(kāi)發(fā)電子閱讀器當(dāng)中來(lái)，推出了相應(yīng)的手機(jī)出版物，如人民日?qǐng)?bào)、廣州日?qǐng)?bào)、北京晨報(bào)等主流媒體推出手機(jī)報(bào)業(yè)務(wù)；一些期刊社推出手機(jī)雜志，如三聯(lián)生活周刊、譯林、家庭、時(shí)尚旅游等。1717最后，推出在線工具書(shū)或進(jìn)行在線與遠(yuǎn)程教育出版，如商務(wù)印書(shū)館的在線工具書(shū)，上海世紀(jì)出版集團(tuán)、江蘇鳳凰出版?zhèn)髅郊瘓F(tuán)、北京出版集團(tuán)有限責(zé)任公司的在線與遠(yuǎn)程教出版等。然而即使如此，截至目前，在數(shù)字出版領(lǐng)域鼓浪弄潮的主要還是和信息網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)密切相關(guān)的企業(yè)（如手機(jī)運(yùn)營(yíng)商、網(wǎng)絡(luò)運(yùn)營(yíng)商等），而并非傳統(tǒng)出版企業(yè)。傳統(tǒng)出版社為何對(duì)數(shù)字出版轉(zhuǎn)型采取觀望態(tài)度呢除卻資金、技術(shù)、人才、管理等要素，在目前乃至今后的一段時(shí)期，做數(shù)字出版都看不到盈利的希望，但它卻擁有令人眼紅心動(dòng)的盈利前景。1818現(xiàn)階段出版業(yè)探索出的適合傳統(tǒng)出版集團(tuán)的數(shù)字出版盈利模式有全媒體盈利模式、數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)在線出版盈利模式、在線學(xué)習(xí)出版盈利模式和手機(jī)閱讀盈利模式。1919而目前傳統(tǒng)出版企業(yè)做數(shù)字出版實(shí)現(xiàn)產(chǎn)品銷售的主要方式有4種一是把紙介質(zhì)圖書(shū)數(shù)字化并把電

簡(jiǎn)介：目錄目錄1目前的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)是一個(gè)怎樣的現(xiàn)狀22哪些因素影響了鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)社會(huì)的自主性23把握鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)再造的幾個(gè)具體科學(xué)發(fā)展觀問(wèn)題231堅(jiān)持官本與民本相轉(zhuǎn)變，體現(xiàn)再造的人性化232堅(jiān)持宏觀與微觀相統(tǒng)一，體現(xiàn)再造的統(tǒng)籌性333堅(jiān)持有為和無(wú)為相兼容，體現(xiàn)再造的可持續(xù)334堅(jiān)持一般和個(gè)別相結(jié)合，體現(xiàn)再造的全面性34幾種改革方案的可行性分析441對(duì)實(shí)行鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)自治方案的分析442對(duì)改鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政府為派出機(jī)構(gòu)的理解443對(duì)推行鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)長(zhǎng)直選的不同認(rèn)識(shí)45結(jié)論5參考文獻(xiàn)62二十世紀(jì)以來(lái)，中國(guó)的鄉(xiāng)村治理的研究出現(xiàn)過(guò)兩次高潮，第一次出現(xiàn)在二十世紀(jì)初中期，第二次則出現(xiàn)在二十世紀(jì)末。近期的鄉(xiāng)村治理研究主要是是圍繞治理格局與模式選擇、鄉(xiāng)村治理與權(quán)威秩序、財(cái)稅體制與農(nóng)民負(fù)擔(dān)、人地矛盾與土地制度、鄉(xiāng)村治理與農(nóng)民組織、鄉(xiāng)村治理的比較研究等諸方面來(lái)展開(kāi)的，多學(xué)科的介入研究出現(xiàn)了大量的研究成果，但也存在不少問(wèn)題。1目前目前的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)是一個(gè)怎樣的現(xiàn)狀的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)是一個(gè)怎樣的現(xiàn)狀現(xiàn)階段鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)現(xiàn)狀主要有兩方面，一方面是經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)，一方面是政治危機(jī)。其中經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)一是經(jīng)濟(jì)來(lái)源問(wèn)題，表現(xiàn)為農(nóng)不養(yǎng)政使大部分鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)斷了經(jīng)濟(jì)來(lái)源；二是債務(wù)問(wèn)題，由于財(cái)政體制原因加之近年來(lái)的農(nóng)村趕超型的發(fā)展使鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)背上了沉重的債務(wù)，有的幾乎積重難返。政治危機(jī)一方面是結(jié)構(gòu)性退化，表現(xiàn)為鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)的權(quán)責(zé)關(guān)系不協(xié)調(diào)，機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)置不合理，政權(quán)的運(yùn)行成本過(guò)高、運(yùn)作效能低下；一方面是功能性變異，表現(xiàn)為官本位的過(guò)重。2哪些因素影響了鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)社會(huì)的自主性哪些因素影響了鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)社會(huì)的自主性第一，經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展程度的高低嚴(yán)重影響著鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)社會(huì)自主性的生長(zhǎng)進(jìn)程；第二，鄉(xiāng)村社會(huì)的利益分化是鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)社會(huì)自主性生長(zhǎng)的最基本的前提條件；第三，農(nóng)民與干部素質(zhì)是制約鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)民主制度運(yùn)行的關(guān)鍵性因素；第四，政府控制和主導(dǎo)社會(huì)力量的程度是首屈一指的要素。關(guān)于經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展對(duì)自主性的影響，由于集體經(jīng)濟(jì)的脆弱，村莊精英和村民都會(huì)選擇政治冷漠策略，基層政府靠使用更多的強(qiáng)力來(lái)控制鄉(xiāng)村社會(huì)，完成上級(jí)政府硬性下達(dá)的各項(xiàng)任務(wù)，結(jié)果只能是增加鄉(xiāng)村社會(huì)自治組織對(duì)政府的依附。與此形成對(duì)比的是，沿海發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)經(jīng)濟(jì)的豐盈則導(dǎo)致村民高政治參與積極性并且鄉(xiāng)村社會(huì)自治組織對(duì)抗政府控制的能力亦增強(qiáng)。3把握鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)再造的幾個(gè)具體科學(xué)發(fā)展觀問(wèn)題把握鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)政權(quán)再造的幾個(gè)具體科學(xué)發(fā)展觀問(wèn)題31堅(jiān)持官本與民本相轉(zhuǎn)變，體現(xiàn)再造的人性化堅(jiān)持官本與民本相轉(zhuǎn)變，體現(xiàn)再造的人性化以人為本是鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)再造的最終落腳點(diǎn)，也是鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)再造的首要出發(fā)點(diǎn)。歷史的改革實(shí)踐證明，堅(jiān)持以民為本，改革就會(huì)成功；堅(jiān)持以官為本，改革必然失敗。第一，要樹(shù)立民本意識(shí)。主要是著眼于從官本意識(shí)向民本意識(shí)的轉(zhuǎn)換。意識(shí)問(wèn)題是觀念問(wèn)

簡(jiǎn)介：文獻(xiàn)出處FERRUCCIF,BOCKSREALTIMECONTROLOFEXPRESSPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROCESSESINADYNAMICENVIRONMENTJTRANSPORTATIONRESEARCHPARTBMETHODOLOGICAL,2014,63114原文原文REALTIMECONTROLOFEXPRESSPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROCESSESINADYNAMICENVIRONMENTFRANCESCOFERRUCCI；STEFANBOCK1INTRODUCTIONDAILYTRANSPORTATIONSERVICESOFEXPRESSCOURIERSERVICECOMPANIESARECHARACTERIZEDBYAHIGHLYDYNAMICENVIRONMENTINWHICHTHESYSTEMSITUATIONFREQUENTLYCHANGESBYTHEOCCURRENCEOFVARIOUSDYNAMICEVENTSAKEYCHARACTERISTICISTHATDYNAMICALLYARRIVINGREQUESTSHAVETOBETRANSPORTEDFROMPICKUPLOCATIONSTODELIVERYLOCATIONSONTHESAMEDAYSINCEITISHIGHLYDESIREDTHATREQUESTSAREFULFILLEDWITHINGIVENTIMEWINDOWS,TRANSPORTATIONACTIVITIESAREOFTENCARRIEDOUTUNDERHIGHTIMEPRESSUREMOREOVER,ROADNETWORKSAREFREQUENTLYCONGESTEDANDUNRELIABLECONSEQUENTLY,BESIDESTHEARRIVALOFNEWREQUESTS,TRAFFICCONGESTIONANDVEHICLEDISTURBANCES,IE,SLOWDOWNSANDBREAKDOWNS,HAVETOBEMANAGEDINREALTIMETHANKSTOADVANCESININFORMATIONANDCOMMUNICATIONTECHNOLOGIES,INFORMATIONABOUTDYNAMICEVENTSWHICHISONLYAVAILABLEDURINGTHEEXECUTIONOFTHETRANSPORTATIONSERVICECANNOWBEUTILIZEDLARSEN,2000ANDGIAGLISETAL,200411CONTRIBUTIONSINTHISPAPER,WEPROPOSEANEWREALTIMECONTROLAPPROACHFOREFFICIENTLYCOORDINATINGDYNAMICTRANSPORTATIONSERVICESOFEXPRESSCOURIERSERVICECOMPANIESINORDERTOPROVIDEPRACTICALDECISIONSUPPORT,THISAPPROACHISBASEDONANEXTENDEDDYNAMICPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROBLEMDPDPTHATINTEGRATESVARIOUSSOURCESOFDYNAMICEVENTSASWELLASSEVERALREALWORLDASPECTSWEDENOTETHISNEWVARIANTASTHEDYNAMICPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROBLEMWITHREALTIMECONTROLDPDPRCITISSPECIFICALLYDESIGNEDINORDERTOEFFICIENTLYCONTROLURGENTREALWORLDTRANSPORTATIONSERVICESWHICHAREEXECUTEDBYEXPRESSCOURIERSERVICECOMPANIESTHEMAINCONTRIBUTIONSOFTHISPAPERARETHECONSIDEREDTRANSPORTATIONSERVICESCANBEMODELEDASAVARIANTOFTHEPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROBLEMPDPWHICHISAGENERALIZATIONOFTHEWELLSTUDIEDVEHICLEROUTINGPROBLEMVRP,SEETOTHANDVIGO,2002ANDGOLDENETAL,2008ANDASPECIALCASEOFTHEGENERALPICKUPANDDELIVERYPROBLEMGPDP,SEESAVELSBERGHANDSOL,1995VARIANTSOFPDPSHAVEBECOMEAVITALRESEARCHAREABECAUSEOFTHEIRPRACTICALRELEVANCEACLOSELYRELATEDPROBLEMTHATFOCUSESONPASSENGERTRANSPORTATIONISTHEDIALARIDEPROBLEMDARP,SEECORDEAUANDLAPORTE,2007,CORDEAUETAL,2007,PAQUETTEETAL,2013ANDKIRCHLERANDWOLFLERCALVO,2013INTHEDARP,ADDITIONALDRIVINGCONSTRAINTSANDCONVENIENCEOBJECTIVESARECONSIDEREDINTHELITERATURE,APPROACHESFORSTATICPDPSAREDISTINGUISHEDFROMDYNAMICCONCEPTSINAPPROACHESFORSTATICPDPSITISASSUMEDTHATTHEPROBLEMDATAISKNOWNINADVANCEWITHCERTAINTYSEE,EG,NANRYANDWESLEYBARNES,2000,LUANDDESSOUKY,2004ANDBARDANDJARRAH,2009HENCE,ONACCOUNTOFTHEABSENCEOFDYNAMICEVENTS,NOPLANADAPTATIONISNECESSARYDURINGTHEEXECUTIONOFTHETRANSPORTATIONSERVICEINCONTRAST,REALTIMECONCEPTSCANHANDLEUNEXPECTEDCHANGESOFTHESYSTEMSITUATIONCAUSEDBYDYNAMICEVENTSSEEGHIANIETAL,2003,MITROVICMINICETAL,2004,MITROVICMINICANDLAPORTE,2004ANDFABRIANDRECHT,2006WITHREGARDTOTHEFOCUSOFTHISPAPER,ONLYREALTIMEAPPROACHESAREDESCRIBEDINWHATFOLLOWSANOVERVIEWABOUTDYNAMICPDPSCANBEFOUNDINBERBEGLIAETAL2010WHILEMOSTAPPROACHESCONSIDERTHEARRIVALOFNEWREQUESTS,OTHERSOURCESOFDYNAMICEVENTSAREALSOCONSIDEREDINSELECTEDRESEARCHWORKMODELINGOFTRAFFICCONGESTIONISCONSIDEREDINTHEWORKOFFLEISCHMANNETAL,2004,ATTANASIOETAL,2007,BARCELóETAL,2007,HAGHANIANDYANG,2007,CORTéSETAL,2008ANDBOCK,2010MOREOVER,VEHICLEDISTURBANCESARECONSIDEREDINLIETAL,2009,LIETAL,2009,BOCK,2010ANDMUETAL,2010RECENTLY,THEREHAVEBEENANUMBEROFAPPROACHESTHATUSESTOCHASTICKNOWLEDGEABOUTEXPECTEDFUTUREREQUESTARRIVALSWHILEMOSTAPPROACHESDEALWITHDYNAMICVRPSSEE,EG,BENTANDVANHENTENRYCK,2004,ICHOUAETAL,2006,HVATTUMETAL,2006,HVATTUMETAL,2007,VANDEKLUNDERTANDWORMER,2010ANDFERRUCCIETAL,

簡(jiǎn)介：CONCRETEBRIDGESCONCRETEISTHEMOSTUSEDCONSTRUCTIONMATERIALFORBRIDGESINTHEUNITEDSTATES,ANDINDEEDINTHEWORLDTHEAPPLICATIONOFPRESTRESSINGTOBRIDGESHASGROWNRAPIDLYANDSTEADILY,BEGINNINGIN1949WITHHIGHSTRENGTHSTEELWIRESINTHEWALNUTLANEBRIDGEINPHILADELPHIA,PENNSYLVANIAACCORDINGTOTHEFEDERALHIGHWAYADMINISTRATION’S1994NATIONALBRIDGEINVENTORYDATA,FROM1950TOTHEEARLY1990S,PRESTRESSEDCONCRETEBRIDGESHAVEGONEFROMBEINGVIRTUALLYNONEXISTENTTOREPRESENTINGOVER50PERCENTOFALLBRIDGESBUILTINTHEUNITEDSTATESPRESTRESSINGHASALSOPLAYEDANIMPORTANTROLEINEXTENDINGTHESPANCAPABILITYOFCONCRETEBRIDGESBYTHELATE1990S,SPLICEDGIRDERSPANSREACHEDARECORD100M330FTCONSTRUCTIONOFSEGMENTALCONCRETEBRIDGESBEGANINTHEUNITEDSTATESIN1974CURRETLY,CLOSETO200SEGMENTALCONCRETEBRIDGESHAVEBEENBUILTORAREUNDERCONSTRUCTION,WITHSPANSUPTO240M800FTLATEINTHE1970S,CABLESTAYEDCONSTRUCTIONRAISEDTHEBARFORCONCRETEBRIDGESBY1982,THESUNSHINESKYWAYBRIDGEINTAMPA,FLORIDA,HADSETANEWRECORDFORCONCRETEBRIDGES,WITHAMAINSPANOF365M1,200FTTHENEXTYEAR,THEDAMESPOINTBRIDGEINJACKSONVILLE,FLORIDA,EXTENDEDTHERECORDTO400M1,300FTHIGHPERFORMANCECONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHFORMANYYEARSTHEDESIGNOFPRECASTPRESTRESSEDCONCRETEGIRDERSWASBASEDONCONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSOF34TO41MPA5,000TO6,000PSITHISSTRENGTHLEVELSERVEDTHEINDUSTRYWELLANDPROVIDEDTHEBASISFORESTABLISHINGTHEPRESTRESSEDCONCRETEBRIDGEINDUSTRYINTHEUNITEDSTATESINTHE1990STHEINDUSTRYBEGANTOUTILIZEHIGHERCONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSINDESIGN,ANDATTHESTARTOFTHENEWMILLENNIUMTHEINDUSTRYISPOISEDTOACCEPTTHEUSEOFCONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSUPTO70MPA10,000PSIFORTHEFUTURE,THEINDUSTRYNEEDSTOSEEKWAYSTOEFFECTIVELYUTILIZEEVENHIGHERCONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSTHEREADYMIXEDCONCRETEINDUSTRYHASBEENPRODUCINGCONCRETESWITHCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSINEXCESSOF70MPAFOROVER20YEARSSEVERALDEMONSTRATIONPROJECTSHAVEILLUSTRATEDTHATSTRENGTHSABOVE70MPACANBEACHIEVEDFORPRESTRESSEDCONCRETEGIRDERSBARRIERSNEEDTOBEREMOVEDTOALLOWTHEGREATERUSEOFTHESEMATERIALSATTHESAMETIME,OWNERS,DESIGNERS,CONTRACTORS,ANDFABRICATORSNEEDTOBEMORERECEPTIVETOTHEUSEOFHIGHERCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHCONCRETESDURABILITYHIGHPERFORMANCECONCRETEHPCCANBESPECIFIEDASHIGHCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHEG,INPRESTRESSEDGIRDERSORASCONVENTIONALCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHWITHIMPROVEDDURABILITYEG,INCASTINPLACEBRIDGEDECKSANDSUBSTRUCTURESTHEREISANEEDTODEVELOPABETTERUNDERSTANDINGOFALLTHEPARAMETERSTHATAFFECTDURABILITY,SUCHASCAPABILITYONTHEBASISOFTHEFHWASTUDY,PCIDEVELOPEDTHEPCIBULBTEESTANDARD,WHICHWASENDORSEDBYBRIDGEENGINEERSATTHE1987AASHTOANNUALMEETINGSUBSEQUENTLY,THEPCIBULBTEECROSSSECTIONWASADOPTEDINSEVERALSTATESINADDITION,SIMILARCROSSSECTIONSWEREDEVELOPEDANDADOPTEDINFLORIDA,NEBRASKA,ANDTHENEWENGLANDSTATESTHESECROSSSECTIONSAREALSOCOSTEFFECTIVEWITHHIGHSTRENGTHCONCRETESFORSPANLENGTHSUPTOABOUT60M200FTSPLICEDGIRDERSSPLICEDCONCRETEIGIRDERBRIDGESARECOSTEFFECTIVEFORASPANRANGEOF35TO90M120TO300FTOTHERSHAPESBESIDESIGIRDERSINCLUDEU,T,ANDRECTANGULARGIRDERS,ALTHOUGHTHEDOMINANTSHAPEINAPPLICATIONSTODATEHASBEENTHEIGIRDER,PRIMARILYBECAUSEOFITSRELATIVELYLOWCOSTAFEATUREOFSPLICEDBRIDGESISTHEFLEXIBILITYTHEYPROVIDEINSELECTIONOFSPANLENGTH,NUMBERANDLOCATIONSOFPIERS,SEGMENTLENGTHS,ANDSPLICELOCATIONSSPLICEDGIRDERSHAVETHEABILITYTOADAPTTOCURVEDSUPERSTRUCTUREALIGNMENTSBYUTILIZINGSHORTSEGMENTLENGTHSANDACCOMMODATINGTHECHANGEINDIRECTIONINTHECASTINPLACEJOINTSCONTINUITYINSPLICEDGIRDERBRIDGESCANBEACHIEVEDTHROUGHFULLLENGTHPOSTTENSIONING,CONVENTIONALREINFORCEMENTINTHEDECK,HIGHSTRENGTHTHREADEDBARSPLICING,ORPRETENSIONEDSTRANDSPLICING,ALTHOUGHTHEGREATMAJORITYOFAPPLICATIONSUTILIZEFULLLENGTHPOSTTENSIONINGTHEAVAILABILITYOFCONCRETECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHSHIGHERTHANTHETRADITIONAL34MPA5,000PSISIGNIFICANTLYIMPROVESTHEECONOMYOFSPLICEDGIRDERDESIGNS,INWHICHHIGHFLEXURALANDSHEARSTRESSESARECONCENTRATEDNEARTHEPIERSDEVELOPMENTOFSTANDARDIZEDHAUNCHEDGIRDERPIERSEGMENTSISNEEDEDFOREFFICIENCYINNEGATIVEMOMENTZONESCURRENTLY,THESEGMENTSHAPESVARYFROMAGRADUALLYTHICKENINGBOTTOMFLANGETOACURVEDHAUNCHWITHCONSTANTSIZEDBOTTOMFLANGEANDVARIABLEWEBDEPTHSEGMENTALBRIDGESSEGMENTALCONCRETEBRIDGESHAVEBECOMEANESTABLISHEDTYPEOFCONSTRUCTIONFORHIGHWAYANDTRANSITPROJECTSONCONSTRAINEDSITESTYPICALAPPLICATIONSINCLUDETRANSITSYSTEMSOVEREXISTINGURBANSTREETSANDHIGHWAYS,RECONSTRUCTIONOFEXISTINGINTERCHANGESANDBRIDGESUNDERTRAFFIC,ORPROJECTSTHATCROSSENVIRONMENTALLYSENSITIVESITESINADDITION,SEGMENTALCONSTRUCTIONHASBEENPROVEDTOBEAPPROPRIATEFORLARGESCALE,REPETITIVEBRIDGESSUCHASLONGWATERWAYCROSSINGSORURBANFREEWAYVIADUCTSORWHERETHEAESTHETICSOFTHEPROJECTAREPARTICULARLYIMPORTANTCURRENTDEVELOPMENTSSUGGESTTHATSEGMENTALCONSTRUCTIONWILLBEUSEDONALARGERNUMBEROFPROJECTSINTHEFUTURESTANDARDCROSSSECTIONSHAVEBEENDEVELOPEDTOALLOWFORWIDERAPPLICATIONOFTHISCONSTRUCTIONMETHODTOSMALLERSCALEPROJECTSSURVEYSOFEXISTINGSEGMENTALBRIDGESHAVEDEMONSTRATEDTHEDURABILITYOFTHISSTRUCTURETYPEANDSUGGESTTHATADDITIONALINCREASESINDESIGNLIFEAREPOSSIBLEWITHTHEUSEOFHPCSEGMENTALBRIDGESWITHCONCRETESTRENGTHSOF55MPA8,000PSIORMOREHAVEBEENCONSTRUCTEDOVERTHEPAST5YEARSERECTIONWITHOVERHEADEQUIPMENTHASEXTENDEDAPPLICATIONSTOMORECONGESTEDURBANAREASUSEOFPRESTRESSEDCOMPOSITESTEELANDCONCRETEINBRIDGESREDUCESTHEDEADWEIGHTOFTHESUPERSTRUCTUREANDOFFERSINCREASEDSPANLENGTHSLOADRATINGOFEXISTINGBRIDGES

簡(jiǎn)介：山東建筑大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文1外文文獻(xiàn)PROJECTCOSTCONTROLTHEWAYITWORKSBYRMAXWIDEMANINARECENTCONSULTINGASSIGNMENTWEREALIZEDTHATTHEREWASSOMELACKOFUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEWHOLESYSTEMOFPROJECTCOSTCONTROL,HOWITISSETUPANDAPPLIEDSOWEDECIDEDTOWRITEUPADESCRIPTIONOFHOWITWORKSPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISNOTTHATDIFFICULTTOFOLLOWINTHEORYFIRSTYOUESTABLISHASETOFREFERENCEBASELINESTHEN,ASWORKPROGRESSES,YOUMONITORTHEWORK,ANALYZETHEFINDINGS,FORECASTTHEENDRESULTSANDCOMPARETHOSEWITHTHEREFERENCEBASELINESIFTHEENDRESULTSARENOTSATISFACTORYTHENYOUMAKEADJUSTMENTSASNECESSARYTOTHEWORKINPROGRESS,ANDREPEATTHECYCLEATSUITABLEINTERVALSIFTHEENDRESULTSGETREALLYOUTOFLINEWITHTHEBASELINEPLAN,YOUMAYHAVETOCHANGETHEPLANMORELIKELY,THEREWILLBEORHAVEBEENSCOPECHANGESTHATCHANGETHEREFERENCEBASELINESWHICHMEANSTHATEVERYTIMETHATHAPPENSYOUHAVETOCHANGETHEBASELINEPLANANYWAYBUTPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISALOTMOREDIFFICULTTODOINPRACTICE,ASISEVIDENCEDBYTHENUMBEROFPROJECTSTHATFAILTOCONTAINCOSTSITALSOINVOLVESASIGNIFICANTAMOUNTOFWORK,ASWESHALLSEE,ANDWEMIGHTASWELLSTARTATTHEBEGINNINGSOLETUSFOLLOWTHETHREADOFPROJECTCOSTCONTROLTHROUGHTHEENTIREPROJECTLIFESPANAND,WHILEWEAREATIT,WEWILLTAKETHEOPPORTUNITYTOPOINTOUTTHEPROPERPLACESFORSEVERALSIGNIFICANTDOCUMENTSTHESEINCLUDETHEBUSINESSCASE,THEREQUESTFORACAPITALAPPROPRIATIONFOREXECUTION,WORKPACKAGESANDTHEWORKBREAKDOWNSTRUCTURE,THEPROJECTCHARTERORBRIEF,THEPROJECTBUDGETORCOSTPLAN,EARNEDVALUEANDTHECOSTBASELINEALLOFTHESECONTRIBUTETOTHEORGANIZATIONSABILITYTOEFFECTIVELYCONTROLPROJECTCOSTSFOOTNOTEIAMINDEBTEDTOMYFRIENDQUENTINFLEMING,THEGURUOFEARNEDVALUE,FORCHECKINGANDCORRECTINGMYWORKONTHISTOPICTHEBUSINESSCASEANDAPPLICATIONFOREXECUTIONFUNDINGITISIMPORTANTTONOTETHATPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISMOSTEFFECTIVEWHENTHEEXECUTIVEMANAGEMENTRESPONSIBLEHASAGOODUNDERSTANDINGOFHOWPROJECTSSHOULDUNFOLDTHROUGHTHEPROJECTLIFESPANTHISMEANSTHATTHEYEXERCISETHEIRRESPONSIBILITIESATTHEKEYDECISIONPOINTS山東建筑大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文3THEPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLAN,PROJECTBRIEFORPROJECTCHARTERIFTHEDELIVERABLECONSISTSOFANUMBEROFDIFFERENTELEMENTS,THESEAREIDENTIFIEDANDASSEMBLEDINTOWORKPACKAGESWPSANDPRESENTEDINTHEFORMOFAWORKBREAKDOWNSTRUCTUREWBSEACHWPINVOLVESASETOFACTIVITIES,THE“WORK“THATISPLANNEDANDSCHEDULEDASAPARTOFTHEPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLANNOTE,HOWEVER,THATTHEPLANNINGWILLSTILLBEATARELATIVELYHIGHLEVEL,ANDMOREDETAILEDPLANNINGWILLBENECESSARYDURINGEXECUTIONIFTHEPROJECTISGIVENTHEGOAHEADTHISPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLAN,BYTHEWAY,SHOULDBECOMETHE“BIBLE“FORTHEEXECUTIONPHASEOFTHEPROJECTANDISSOMETIMESREFERREDTOASTHE“PROJECTBRIEF“ORTHE“PROJECTCHARTER“THECOSTOFDOINGTHEVARIOUSACTIVITIESISTHENESTIMATEDANDTHESEESTIMATEDCOSTSAREAGGREGATEDTODETERMINETHEESTIMATEDCOSTOFTHEWPTHISAPPROACHISKNOWNAS“DETAILEDESTIMATING“OR“BOTTOMUPESTIMATING“THEREAREOTHERAPPROACHESTOESTIMATINGTHATWELLCOMETOINAMINUTEEITHERWAY,THERESULTISANESTIMATEDCOSTOFTHETOTALWORKOFTHEPROJECTNOTETHATPROJECTRISKMANAGEMENTPLANNINGISANIMPORTANTPARTOFTHISEXERCISETHISSHOULDEXAMINETHEPROJECTSASSUMPTIONSANDENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONSTOIDENTIFYANYWEAKNESSESINTHEPLANTHUSFAR,ANDIDENTIFYTHOSEPOTENTIALRISKEVENTSTHATWARRANTATTENTIONFORMITIGATIONTHISMIGHTTAKETHEFORMOFSPECIFICCONTINGENCYPLANNING,AND/ORTHESETTINGASIDEOFPRUDENTFUNDINGRESERVESREQUESTFORCAPITALCONVERTINGTHEESTIMATEHOWEVER,ANESTIMATEOFTHEWORKALONEISNOTSUFFICIENTFORACAPITALREQUESTTOARRIVEATACAPITALREQUESTSOMECONVERSIONISNECESSARY,FOREXAMPLE,BYADDINGPRUDENTALLOWANCESSUCHASOVERHEADS,ACONTINGENCYALLOWANCETOCOVERNORMALPROJECTRISKSANDMANAGEMENTRESERVESTOCOVERUNKNOWNSANDPOSSIBLESCOPECHANGESINADDITION,ITMAYBENECESSARYTOCONVERTTHEESTIMATINGDATAINTOAFINANCIALACCOUNTINGFORMATTHATSATISFIESTHECORPORATEORSPONSORSFORMATFORPURPOSESOFCOMPARISONWITHOTHERPROJECTSANDCONSEQUENTFUNDINGAPPROVALINPRACTICEALLTHEDATAFORTHETYPEOF“BOTTOMUP“APPROACHJUSTDESCRIBEDMAYNOTBEAVAILABLEINTHISCASEALTERNATIVEESTIMATINGAPPROACHESAREADOPTEDTHATPROVIDEVARIOUSDEGREESOFRELIABILITYINA“TOPDOWN“FASHIONFOREXAMPLE

簡(jiǎn)介：英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯1畢業(yè)論文英文資料翻譯學(xué)院商學(xué)院專業(yè)國(guó)際經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易班級(jí)國(guó)貿(mào)0804姓名學(xué)號(hào)0811200330指導(dǎo)教師2012年6月英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯3GRILICHES1998JORGENSONANDSTIROH2000DIFFUSIONOFNEWTECHNOLOGYKARSHENASANDSTONEMAN1995GEROSKI2000THEEFFECTOFMARKETSTRUCTUREONINNOVATIONSCHERER1986SUTTON1998MARKETFAILURESRELATEDTOINNOVATIONANDAPPROPRIATEPOLICYRESPONSESMARTINANDSCOTT2000THEECONOMICEFFECTSOFTHEPATENTSYSTEMJAFFE2000ANDTHEROLEOFTECHNOLOGICALCHANGEINENDOGENOUSMACROECONOMICGROWTHROMER1994GROSSMANANDHELPMAN1994INTHISPARTOFTHEARTICLE,WEPROVIDEAVERYBRIEFGUIDETOSOMEOFTHISRESEARCHINPARTICULAR,WEINTRODUCEAPPROACHESFORMEASURINGTECHNOLOGICALCHANGE,WEEXAMINECRITICALASPECTSOFTHEPROCESSOFTECHNOLOGICALCHANGE,ANDWEDESCRIBEMODELINGAPPROACHESANDPOTENTIALMARKETFAILURESRELATINGTOTECHNOLOGYINNOVATIONANDDIFFUSION11MEASUREMENTOFTECHNOLOGICALCHANGETHEMEASUREMENTOFTHERATEANDDIRECTIONOFTECHNOLOGICALCHANGERESTSFUNDAMENTALLYONTHECONCEPTOFTHETRANSFORMATIONFUNCTION,10,,?TIYTWHEREYREPRESENTSAVECTOROFOUTPUTS,IREPRESENTSAVECTOROFINPUTS,ANDTISTIMEEQUATION1DESCRIBESAPRODUCTIONPOSSIBILITYFRONTIER,THATIS,ASETOFCOMBINATIONSOFINPUTSANDOUTPUTSTHATARETECHNICALLYFEASIBLEATAPOINTINTIMETECHNOLOGICALCHANGEISREPRESENTEDBYMOVEMENTOFTHISFRONTIERTHATMAKESITPOSSIBLEOVERTIMETOUSEGIVENINPUTVECTORSTOPRODUCEOUTPUTVECTORSTHATWERENOTPREVIOUSLYFEASIBLEINMOSTAPPLICATIONS,SEPARABILITYANDAGGREGATIONASSUMPTIONSAREMADETHATMAKEITPOSSIBLETOREPRESENTTHEECONOMY’SPRODUCTIONTECHNOLOGYWITHAPRODUCTIONFUNCTION,2,,,TELKFY?WHEREISNOWAMEASUREOFAGGREGATEOUTPUTFOREXAMPLE,GROSSDOMESTICPRODUCT,YANDTHELISTOFINPUTSONTHERIGHTHANDSIDEOFTHEPRODUCTIONFUNCTIONCANBEMADEARBITRARILYLONGFORILLUSTRATIVEPURPOSES,WECONCEIVEOFOUTPUTASBEINGMADEFROMASINGLECOMPOSITEOFCAPITALGOODS,,ASINGLECOMPOSITEOFLABORINPUTS,,ANDAKLSINGLECOMPOSITEOFENVIRONMENTALINPUTS,FOREXAMPLE,WASTEASSIMILATIONAGAIN,ETECHNOLOGICALCHANGEMEANSTHATTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHESEINPUTSANDPOSSIBLEOUTPUTLEVELSCHANGESOVERTIMELOGARITHMICDIFFERENTIATIONOFTHEPRODUCTIONFUNCTIONEQUATION2WITH

簡(jiǎn)介：英語(yǔ)原文INTELLIGENTTRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLBYMARCOWIERINGTHETOPICIPICKEDFOROURCOMMUNITYPROJECTWASTRAFFICLIGHTSINACOMMUNITY,PEOPLENEEDSTOPSIGNSANDTRAFFICLIGHTSTOSLOWDOWNDRIVERSFROMGOINGTOOFASTIFTHEREWERENOTRAFFICLIGHTSORSTOPSIGNS,PEOPLE’SLIVESWOULDBEINDANGERFROMDRIVERSGOINGTOOFASTTHEURBANTRAFFICTRENDSTOWARDSTHESATURATION,THERATEOFINCREASEOFTHEROADOFBIGCITYFARLAGSBEHINDRATEOFINCREASEOFTHECARTHEURBANPASSENGERTRAFFICHASALREADYBECOMETHEMAINPARTOFCITYTRAFFICDAYBYDAYANDITHASUSEDABOUT80OFTHEAREAOFROADOFCENTERDISTRICTWITHTHEINCREASEOFPOPULATIONANDINDUSTRYACTIVITY,PEOPLESTRAFFICISMOREANDMOREFREQUENT,WHICHISUNAVOIDABLEWHATMEANSOFTRANSPORTATIONPEOPLEADOPTPRODUCESPRESSURECOMPLETELYDIFFERENTTOCITYTRAFFICACCORDINGTOCALCULATING,IFITIS1TOADOPTTHEAREAOFROADTHATTHEPUBLICTRANSPORTNEEDS,BIKENEEDS57,CARNEEDS1525,EVENTOWALKIS3TIMESMORETHANTOTAKEPUBLICTRANSITSSOONLYBYBUILDINGROADCANTSOLVETHECITYTRAFFICPROBLEMFINALLYYETEVERYLARGECITYOFTHEWORLDINCREASESTHETRAFFICPOLICYTOTHEFIRSTPLACEOFTHEQUESTIONFOREXAMPLE，ACCORDINGTOCALCULATING,WHENTHEAUTOMOBILEOWNINGAMOUNTOFSHANGHAIREACHES800,000OUTSIDECARSCOUNTSEPARATELY,IFITDISTRIBUTESSTILLASNOWFOREXAMPLECENTERDISTRICTACCOUNTSFORGREATPROPORTION,EVENWHENSEVERALLOOPLINESANDARTERIALHIGHWAYSHAVEBEENBUILTUP,THETRAFFICCANNOTBEIMPROVEDMORETHANBEFOREANDTHESITUATIONMIGHTBEEVENWORSESOTHETRAFFICPOLICYSHANGHAIMUSTADOPT,ORCALLEDTRAFFICSTRATEGYISTHATHAVEPRIORITYTODEVELOPPUBLICPASSENGERTRAFFICOFCITY,NARROWTHESCOPEOFUSINGOFTHEBICYCLEPROGRESSIVELY,CONTROLTHESCALEOFGROWTHOFTHECARTRAFFICINTHECENTERDISTRICT,LIMITTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEMOTORCYCLESTRICTLYTHEREAREMOREMUNICIPALSPROJECTUNDERCONSTRUCTIONINBIGCITYTHEINFLUENCEONTHETRAFFICISGREATERMUNICIPALINFRASTRUCTURECONSTRUCTIONISORIGINALLYAGOODTHINGOFALLEVIATINGTHETRAFFIC,BUTINTHECOURSEOFCONSTRUCTING,ITUNAVOIDABLYINFLUENCETHELOCALTRAFFICSOMEROADSECTIONSAREBLOCKED,SOMECHANGEINTOANONEWAYLANE,THUSTHEVEHICLECANONLYTAKEADEVIOUSROUTETHECONSTRUCTIONMAKESTHEROADVERYNARROW,FORMINGTHEBOTTLENECK,WHICHSERIOUSLYINFLUENCETHECARFLOWWHENHAVINGSTOPSIGNSANDTRAFFICLIGHTS,PEOPLEHAVEATENDENCYTODRIVESLOWERANDRECEIVEINFORMATIONABOUTHOWTODRIVETHROUGHACITYINORDERTOMINIMIZETHEIRWAITINGTIMESTHISMEANSTHATWEARECOPINGWITHACOMPLEXMULTIAGENTSYSTEM,WHERECOMMUNICATIONANDCOORDINATIONPLAYESSENTIALROLESOURRESEARCHHASLEDTOANOVELSYSTEMINWHICHTRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLLERSANDTHEBEHAVIOUROFCARDRIVERSAREOPTIMIZEDUSINGMACHINELEARNINGMETHODSOURIDEAOFSETTINGATRAFFICLIGHTISASFOLLOWSSUPPOSETHEREAREANUMBEROFCARSWITHTHEIRDESTINATIONADDRESSSTANDINGBEFOREACROSSINGALLCARSCOMMUNICATETOTHETRAFFICLIGHTTHEIRSPECIFICPLACEINTHEQUEUEANDTHEIRDESTINATIONADDRESSNOWTHETRAFFICLIGHTHASTODECIDEWHICHOPTIONIE,WHICHLANESARETOBEPUTONGREENISOPTIMALTOMINIMIZETHELONGTERMAVERAGEWAITINGTIMEUNTILALLCARSHAVEARRIVEDATTHEIRDESTINATIONADDRESSTHELEARNINGTRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLLERSSOLVETHISPROBLEMBYESTIMATINGHOWLONGITWOULDTAKEFORACARTOARRIVEATITSDESTINATIONADDRESSFORWHICHTHECARMAYNEEDTOPASSMANYDIFFERENTTRAFFICLIGHTSWHENCURRENTLYTHELIGHTWOULDBEPUTONGREEN,ANDHOWLONGITWOULDTAKEIFTHELIGHTWOULDBEPUTONREDTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENTHEWAITINGTIMEFORREDANDTHEWAITINGTIMEFORGREENISTHEGAINFORTHECARNOWTHETRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLLERSSETTHELIGHTSINSUCHAWAYTOMAXIMIZETHEAVERAGEGAINOFALLCARSSTANDINGBEFORETHECROSSINGTOESTIMATETHEWAITINGTIMES,WEUSEREINFORCEMENTLEARNINGWHICHKEEPSTRACKOFTHEWAITINGTIMESOFINDIVIDUALCARSANDUSESASMARTWAYTOCOMPUTETHELONGTERMAVERAGEWAITINGTIMESUSINGDYNAMICPROGRAMMINGALGORITHMSONENICEFEATUREISTHATTHESYSTEMISVERYFAIRITNEVERLETSONECARWAITFORAVERYLONGTIME,SINCETHENITSGAINOFSETTINGITSOWNLIGHTTOGREENBECOMESVERYLARGE,ANDTHEOPTIMALDECISIONOFTHETRAFFICLIGHTWILLSETHISLIGHTTOGREENFURTHERMORE,SINCEWEESTIMATEWAITINGTIMESBEFORETRAFFICLIGHTSUNTILTHEDESTINATIONOFTHEROADUSERHASBEENREACHED,THEROADUSERCANUSETHISINFORMATIONTOCHOOSETOWHICHNEXTTRAFFICLIGHTTOGO,THEREBYIMPROVINGITSDRIVINGBEHAVIOURTHROUGHACITYNOTETHATWESOLVETHETRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLPROBLEMBYUSINGADISTRIBUTEDMULTIAGENTSYSTEM,WHERECOOPERATIONANDCOORDINATIONAREDONEBYCOMMUNICATION,LEARNING,ANDVOTINGMECHANISMSTOALLOWFORGREENWAVESDURINGEXTREMELYBUSYSITUATIONS,WECOMBINEOURALGORITHMWITHASPECIALBUCKETALGORITHMWHICHPROPAGATESGAINSFROMONETRAFFICLIGHTTOTHENEXTONE,INDUCINGSTRONGERVOTINGONTHENEXTTRAFFICCONTROLLEROPTIONWEHAVEIMPLEMENTEDTHEGREENLIGHTDISTRICT,ATRAFFICSIMULATORINJAVAINWHICHINFRASTRUCTURESCANBEEDITEDEASILYBYUSINGTHEMOUSE,ANDDIFFERENTLEVELSOFROADUSAGECANBESIMULATEDALARGENUMBEROFFIXEDANDLEARNINGTRAFFICLIGHTCONTROLLERSHAVEALREADYBEENTESTEDINTHESIMULATORANDTHERESULTINGAVERAGEWAITINGTIMESOFCARSHAVEBEENPLOTTEDANDCOMPAREDTHERESULTSINDICATETHATTHELEARNINGCONTROLLERSCANREDUCEAVERAGEWAITINGTIMESWITHATLEAST10INSEMIBUSYTRAFFICSITUATIONS,ANDEVENMUCHMOREWHENHIGHCONGESTION

簡(jiǎn)介：外文資料原文外文資料原文LARGESCREENDISPLAYSYSTEMSRESEARCHLEDDEVELOPMENTALONGWITHCOMPUTERTECHNOLOGYSHIGHSPEEDDEVELOPMENT,LEDLIGHTEMITTINGDIODETHESCREENDISPLAYSYSTEMTAKESAFTERTHETELEVISION,THEBROADCAST,THENEWSPAPER,THEMAGAZINE“THEFIFTHBIGMEDIA”MARCHESINTOTHESOCIALLIFEFASTEACHASPECTITSCOLLECTIONMICROELECTRONICTECHNOLOGY,THECOMPUTERTECHNOLOGY,THEINFORMATIONPROCESSINGANDMANAGEMENTTECHNOLOGYINABODY,MAYTHEINFORMATIONTHROUGHTHEWRITING,THEDESIGN,THEANIMATIONANDTHEVIDEOFREQUENCYFOURFORMSDEMONSTRATESWITHMEDIAANDSOONBANKOFTELEVISIONMONITORS,MAGNETISMVANECOMPARES,THELEDLARGESCREENDISPLAYSYSTEMHASTHEDESIGNTOBEARTISTIC,THECOLORISSHARPTHEDESIGN,THECOLORCHANGEARERICH,AREFASTTHELOWPOWERLOSS,THELONGLIFE,THEUSECOSTLOW,WORKSTABLYRELIABLEANDSOONCHARACTERISTICSITDEMONSTRATEDTHECHARTARTICLEANGLEOFVIEWISBIG,THEAPPARENTDISTANCEISFAR,THUSHASWIDELYAPPLIEDINTHELARGESCALESQUARE,THECOMMERCIALADVERTIZING,THESPORTSCOMPLEXES,THEINFORMATIONDISSEMINATION,THENEWSISSUE,THESECURITIESTRADINGITALSOAPPLIESINTHEINDUSTRIALCONTROLANDTHEINDUSTRYREASSIGNMENTSYSTEM,ISADVANTAGEOUSEACHKINDOFPARAMETER,THEALARMPOINT,THETECHNICALPROCESSDEMONSTRATESCLEARLYPERFECT,MAYSATISFYTHEDIFFERENTENVIRONMENTTHENEEDTHELEDDISPLAYMONITORISONEKINDOFUSECOMPUTERANDTHECOMPLEXDIGITALSIGNALPROCESSINGELECTRONADVERTISEMENTSPROPAGANDASCREENITSSCREENBODYPARTBYTHEMICROPROCESSORISMAINLYMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITANDTHEDRIVINGCIRCUITCONTROLMOVEMENT,DEMONSTRATEDTHEIMAGEORTHEWRITINGOBTAINBYTHECOMPUTEREDITIONSOFTWAREEDITORBECAUSETHELEDDISPLAYMONITORTHISKINDOFNEWGENERATIONINFORMATIONGRAPHICDISPLAYDEVICEHASTHEDEMONSTRATIONDESIGNTOBESTABLE,THEPOWERLOSSISLOW,LIFELONGANDSOONCHARACTERISTICS,MOREOVERITSYNTHESIZEDEACHKINDOFINFORMATIONGRAPHICDISPLAYDEVICESSTRONGPOINT,ANDHASOVERCOMEOWNINSUFFICIENCY,BECAUSESPECIALLYADISPLAYMONITORMAYDEMONSTRATETHATTHEDIFFERENTCONTENT,THEDISPLAYMODEISRICHTHEREFOREINTHEPUBLICAREA,ITHASTHEINTENSEADVERTISEMENTSPROPAGANDAANDTHEINFORMATIONTRANSMISSIONEFFECT,ALREADYINTHESOLIDDEMONSTRATEDDAYBYDAYOCCUPIESTHEDOMINANTPOSITIONTHELEDDISPLAYMONITORSPROSPECTSFORDEVELOPMENTAREEXTREMELYBROAD,ATPRESENTTOWARDTHEHIGHLUMINANCE,AHIGHERWEATHERFASTNESS,THEHIGHERLUMINOUSDENSITY,THEHIGHERILLUMINATIONUNIFORMITY,THERELIABILITY,THEPANCHROMATICDIRECTIONISDEVELOPINGISCOMPOSEDOFTHEDIFFERENTMATERIALSSEMICONDUCTORCANSENDOUTTHEDIFFERENTCOLORTHELEDCRYSTALSPOTATPRESENTWHATAPPLIESISBROADESTISRED,THEGREEN,YELLOWLEDBUTTHEBLUECOLORANDTHEPUREGREENLEDDEVELOPMENTHADALREADYACHIEVEDTHEPRACTICALSTAGELEDDISPLAYMONITORSCLASSIFICATIONLEDDISPLAYMONITORSCLASSIFIEDLEDDISPLAYMONITORISMANYKINDSOFTECHNICALSYNTHESISAPPLICATIONPRODUCT,INVOLVESPHOTOELECTRONICS,THESEMICONDUCTORDEVICE,THEDIGITELECTRONICCIRCUIT,THELARGESCALEINTEGRATEDCIRCUIT,THEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITANDTHEMICROCOMPUTERANDSOONEACHASPECT,BOTHHASTHEHARDWAREANDTOHAVESOFTWARE4AFTERTHELEDDISPLAYMONITORISTAKESTHEBROADCAST,THETELEVISION,THENEWSPAPER,THEMAGAZINEANOTHERNEWCOMMUNICATIONMEDIAATPRESENTTHELEDDISPLAYMONITORBASISUSESTHEPLACETOBEDIFFERENT,MAYDIVIDEINTOTHEOUTDOORSCREENANDTHEINDOORSCREENTWOKINDS,ITSMAINDIFFERENCEISPHOTOTOP,FROMTHEDISPLAYPANELTOTHEACTUATIONBOARD,ARRIVESATTHECONTROLPANELAGAIN,CARRIESONTHEHARDWAREPROGRAMMING,AFTERDEBUGGINGSUCCESSFULLY,RECEIVESATELEGRAMTHESOURCEPLATE,FINALLYCOMPLETESTHEDATATRANSMISSIONBOARDANDPCMACHINECONNECTS,CARRIESONTHEPCSOFTWAREPROGRAMMING,COMPLETESTHEDEMONSTRATIONDATATHEPRODUCTION,THEEXTRACTION,PROCESSING,THETRANSMISSIONASWELLASTHEDEMONSTRATIONEFFECTREALTIMECONTROLEACHMODULEUSES8LEDLATTICESTOLIGHTENEACHLINEBYTHELINESCANFORMRED,GREEN,THETRAFFICLIGHT,THEDEMONSTRATIONWRITINGANDTHEIMAGETHELEDLATTICESACTUATION,THEDECODING,THELOCKSAVEANDSOONTOBERESPONSIBLEBYCONTROLPANELSDIGITALCIRCUITITSDATAREADSBYTHEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITFROMTHEMEMORY,SIMULTANEOUSLYTHEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITUSESTHEINTERRUPTMODE,CARRIESONTHETWOWAYCOMMUNICATIONTHROUGHTHERS232DATALINEANDPCMACHINE,FROMTHEPCMACHINEGAINORDERORTHEDATA,ANDCARRIESOUTTHEMOVEMENTORTHESTOREDDATUMACCORDINGTOTHEORDERNOTONLYBUTPCMACHINECARRIESONMANYMACHINESERIALPORTCORRESPONDENCESWITHMANYMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITS,BUTMUSTBERESPONSIBLEFORTHEWRITINGINPUTANDTHETYPESETTING,THEPRODUCTIONLATTICEDATAORTHEORDERCHARACTER,REALIZETHEMANMACHINEINTERACTIONFUNCTIONPRINCIPLEOFWORKTHISARTICLEDESIGNSTHELARGESCALELEDDISPLAYMONITORBECOMESBYTHEDOUBLEPRIMARYCOLORLATTICELEDCOMBINATION,USESTHELINEBYLINESCANNINGTHEDISPLAYMODETODEMONSTRATERED,GREEN,THEYELLOWTHREEKINDOFCOLORRANDOMLATTICEINFORMATIONTHEDISPLAYMODULEUSESTHELINEBYLINESCANNINGDEMONSTRATIONTHEWAY,ITSCONTROLSYSTEMTAKEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITAT89C52ASACORE,USES62256MEMORIESTOTAKETHEDATACARRIERSTORAGE,ACTUATES88USINGLATCH74HC377AND8GROUPOFLINEDRIVER2083THELEDDISPLAYMODULE,SIMULTANEOUSLYOPENSTHESERIALPORTINTERRUPTANDSUPERIORPCMACHINECARRIESONMANYMACHINECORRESPONDENCESTHROUGHREALIZESDISPLAYMONITORSMANYKINDSOFANIMATIONPATTERNTOTHEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITPROGRAMMINGTODEMONSTRATEROLLSTHESCREENTOWARDLEFT,ROLLSTHESCREENTOWARDRIGHT,ROLLSTHESCREENUPWARDLY,ROLLSTHESCREENDOWNWARD,ONROLLSTHESCREENTOWARDLEFT,ONROLLSTHESCREENTOWARDRIGHT,TOTHEZOLACURTAIN,PULLSTHECURTAINTOWARDRIGHT,PULLSTHECURTAINUPWARDLY,PULLSTHECURTAINDOWNWARD,TOTHERIGHTLATERAL,LIGHTENSINTURNFROMLEFTTORIGHT,FROMAMONGTOTWONEARBY,LIGHTENSINTURNANIMATIONSPEEDADJUSTABLEDIVIDESINTO100GRADES,LOWESTIS1FAST,HIGHESTIS100FASTTHEPATTERNCOLORISDIVERSETHEBACKGROUNDACHROMATICCOLOR,THEWRITINGRED/GREEN/YELLOW,THEBACKGROUNDISRED,THEWRITINGDOESNOTHAVE/THEYELLOW/GREEN,THEBACKGROUNDGREEN,THEWRITINGDOESNOTHAVE/YELLOW/RED,THEBACKGROUNDYELLOW,THEWRITINGDOESNOTHAVE/THERED/GREENMOREOVER,BUTALSOINCREASEDSEVERALDOZENSKINDOFNEONLIGHTEFFECTANIMATIONTHEPCMACHINEONDISPLAYCONTROLSOFTWAREMAYREALIZEFUNCTIONSANDSOONCHINESECHARACTERINPUT,TYPEFACECHOICE,WORDSCHANGE,ANDAFTERCARRYINGONTHEDATAPROCESSING,MAYINLEFTSIDESIMULATETHEDEMONSTRATIONWHOLEEFFECT,SIMULTANEOUSLY“SEESNAMELYOBTAINED”DEMONSTRATIONINUNDERNEATHPREVIEWREGIONMOREOVER,THISCONTROLSOFTWAREALSOHASADDITIONALFUNCTIONSANDSOONTEXTDESIGNATION,MOUSELOCALIZATION,COORDINATETRACING,TIMEDATEPCMACHINEREALIZESTHROUGHTHERS232CONNECTIONWITHTHEDEMONSTRATIONPARTMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITSCORRESPONDENCE,INTERRUPTSTHEREALTIMERECEIVEANDTHETRANSMISSIONDATAMESSAGEUSINGTHEMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITSERIALPORTHASALSOGIVENDUALATTENTIONTOMONOLITHICINTEGRATEDCIRCUITSANTIJAMMINGABILITYINTHESYSTEMDESIGN,ENHANCEDTHESYSTEMSOPERATIONRELIABILITYEFFECTIVELYSHINESTHESECONDLEVELTUBECHARACTERISTICTHELIGHTEMITTERDIODELIGHTEMITTINGDIODE,LED,ISONEKINDTURNSTHEELECTRICALENERGYTHE

簡(jiǎn)介：基于單片機(jī)的步進(jìn)電機(jī)電路控制設(shè)計(jì)英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯THESTEPPERMOTORCONTROLCIRCUITBEBASEDONSINGLECHIPMICROCOMPUTERTHEAT89C51ISALOWPOWER,HIGHPERFORMANCECMOS8BITMICROCOMPUTERWITH4KBYTESOFFLASHPROGRAMMABLEANDERASABLEREADONLYMEMORYPEROMTHEDEVICEISMANUFACTUREDUSINGATMEL’SHIGHDENSITYNONVOLATILEMEMORYTECHNOLOGYANDISCOMPATIBLEWITHTHEINDUSTRYSTANDARDMCS51INSTRUCTIONSETANDPINOUTTHEONCHIPFLASHALLOWSTHEPROGRAMMEMORYTOBEREPROGRAMMEDINSYSTEMORBYACONVENTIONALNONVOLATILEMEMORYPROGRAMMERBYCOMBININGAVERSATILE8BITCPUWITHFLASHONAMONOLITHICCHIP,THEATMELAT89C51ISAPOWERFULMICROCOMPUTERWHICHPROVIDESAHIGHLYFLEXIBLEANDCOSTEFFECTIVESOLUTIONTOMANYEMBEDDEDCONTROLAPPLICATIONSFUNCTIONCHARACTERISTICTHEAT89C51PROVIDESTHEFOLLOWINGSTANDARDFEATURES4KBYTESOFFLASH,128BYTESOFRAM,32I/OLINES,TWO16BITTIMER/COUNTERS,AFIVEVECTORTWOLEVELINTERRUPTARCHITECTURE,AFULLDUPLEXSERIALPORT,ONCHIPOSCILLATORANDCLOCKCIRCUITRYINADDITION,THEAT89C51ISDESIGNEDWITHSTATICLOGICFOROPERATIONDOWNTOZEROFREQUENCYANDSUPPORTSTWOSOFTWARESELECTABLEPOWERSAVINGMODESTHEIDLEMODESTOPSTHECPUWHILEALLOWINGTHERAM,TIMER/COUNTERS,SERIALPORTANDINTERRUPTSYSTEMTOCONTINUEFUNCTIONINGTHEOUTPUTBUFFERSCANSINK/SOURCEFOURTTLINPUTSWHEN1SAREWRITTENTOPORT2PINSTHEYAREPULLEDHIGHBYTHEINTERNALPULLUPSANDCANBEUSEDASINPUTSASINPUTS,PORT2PINSTHATAREEXTERNALLYBEINGPULLEDLOWWILLSOURCECURRENT,BECAUSEOFTHEINTERNALPULLUPSPORT2EMITSTHEHIGHORDERADDRESSBYTEDURINGFETCHESFROMEXTERNALPROGRAMMEMORYANDDURINGACCESSESTOEXTERNALDATAMEMORYTHATUSE16BITADDRESSESINTHISAPPLICATION,ITUSESSTRONGINTERNALPULLUPSWHENEMITTING1SDURINGACCESSESTOEXTERNALDATAMEMORYTHATUSE8BITADDRESSES,PORT2EMITSTHECONTENTSOFTHEP2SPECIALFUNCTIONREGISTERPORT2ALSORECEIVESTHEHIGHORDERADDRESSBITSANDSOMECONTROLSIGNALSDURINGFLASHPROGRAMMINGANDVERIFICATIONPORT3PORT3ISAN8BITBIDIRECTIONALI/OPORTWITHINTERNALPULLUPSTHEPORT3OUTPUTBUFFERSCANSINK/SOURCEFOURTTLINPUTSWHEN1SAREWRITTENTOPORT3PINSTHEYAREPULLEDHIGHBYTHEINTERNALPULLUPSANDCANBEUSEDASINPUTSASINPUTS,PORT3PINSTHATAREEXTERNALLYBEINGPULLEDLOWWILLSOURCECURRENTIILBECAUSEOFTHEPULLUPSPORT3ALSOSERVESTHEFUNCTIONSOFVARIOUSSPECIALFEATURESOFTHEAT89C51ASLISTEDBELOWPORT3ALSORECEIVESSOMECONTROLSIGNALSFORFLASHPROGRAMMINGANDVERIFICATIONRSTRESETINPUTAHIGHONTHISPINFORTWOMACHINECYCLESWHILETHEOSCILLATORISRUNNINGRESETSTHEDEVICE

簡(jiǎn)介：畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書(shū)英文文獻(xiàn)及中文翻譯班級(jí)學(xué)號(hào)姓名學(xué)院專業(yè)指導(dǎo)教師CONTENTISRIGHTCHOICE,THENEWCHALLENGEISTOCREATETHEINTERACTIONBASEDONWEBAPPLICATIONS,INTHESEPROCEDURES,THECONTENTOFAWEBPAGEISBASEDONTHEUSERSREQUESTORTHESTATEOFTHESYSTEM,ANDARENOTPREDEFINEDCHARACTERSFORTHEPROBLEMOFANEARLYSOLUTIONISTOUSEACGIBININTERFACEDEVELOPERSWRITETOINTERFACEWITHTHERELEVANTPROCEDURESANDSEPARATEBASEDONWEBAPPLICATIONS,THELATTERTHROUGHTHEWEBSERVERTOINVOKETHEFORMERTHISPLANHASSERIOUSPROBLEMEACHNEWEXTENSIBLECGIREQUIREMENTSINANEWPROCESSONTHESERVERIFMULTIPLECONCURRENTUSERSACCESSTOTHISPROCEDURE,THESEPROCESSESWILLUSETHEWEBSERVEROFALLAVAILABLERESOURCES,ANDTHEPERFORMANCEOFTHESYSTEMWILLBEREDUCEDTOEXTREMELYLOWSOMEWEBSERVERPROVIDERSHAVETOPROVIDEFORTHEIRSERVERBYPLUGINS“AND“THEAPITOSIMPLIFYTHEWEBAPPLICATIONDEVELOPMENTTHESESOLUTIONSAREASSOCIATEDWITHCERTAINWEBSERVER,CANNOTSOLVETHESPANMULTIPLESUPPLIERSSOLUTIONSFOREXAMPLE,MICROSOFTSACTIVESERVERMIXASPTECHNOLOGYINTHEWEBPAGETOCREATEDYNAMICCONTENTMOREEASILY,BUTALSOCANWORKINMICROSOFTONPERSONALWEBSERVERANDIISTHEREAREOTHERSOLUTIONS,BUTCANNOTMAKEANORDINARYPAGEDESIGNERSCANEASILYMASTERFOREXAMPLE,SUCHASTHESERVLETJAVATECHNOLOGIESCANUSEJAVALANGUAGEINTERACTIONAPPLICATIONSERVERCODEEASIERDEVELOPERSTOWRITESUCHSERVLETTORECEIVESIGNALSFROMTHEWEBBROWSERTOGENERATEANHTTPREQUEST,ADYNAMICRESPONSEMAYBEINQUIRESTHEDATABASETOFINISHTHEREQUEST,THENSENDCONTAINHTMLORXMLDOCUMENTSTOTHERESPONSEOFTHEBROWSERONEISBASEDONAJAVASERVLETJAVATECHNICALOPERATIONINTHESERVERPROGRAMWITHDIFFERENT,THELATTEROPERATINGINTHEAPPLETBROWSERENDINTHISBOOKTHESERVLETCHAPTER4USINGTHISMETHOD,THEENTIREPAGEMUSTHAVEMADEINJAVASERVLETIFDEVELOPERSORWEBMANAGERSWANTTOADJUSTPAGE,YOULLHAVETOEDITANDRECOMPILETHESERVLETJAVA,EVENINLOGICHASBEENABLETORUNUSINGTHISMETHOD,THEDYNAMICCONTENTWITHTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHEPAGESTILLNEEDTODEVELOPSKILLSOBVIOUSLY,WHATISNEEDEDISAINDUSTRYTOCREATEDYNAMICCONTENTWITHINTHESCOPEOFTHEPAGESOFTHESOLUTIONTHISPROGRAMWILLSOLVETHECURRENTSCHEMEARELIMITEDASFOLLOWS

簡(jiǎn)介：文獻(xiàn)出處文獻(xiàn)出處HENDERSONVTHEURBANIZATIONPROCESSANDECONOMICGROWTHTHESOWHATQUESTIONJJOURNALOFECONOMICGROWTH,2003,814771原文原文THEURBANIZATIONPROCESSANDECONOMICGROWTHTHESOWHATQUESTIONVERNONHENDERSONTHEREISANEXTENSIVELITERATUREONTHEURBANIZATIONPROCESSLOOKINGATBOTHURBANIZATIONANDURBANCONCENTRATION,ASKINGWHETHERANDWHENTHEREISUNDEROROVERURBANIZATIONORUNDEROROVERURBANCONCENTRATIONWRITERSARGUETHATNATIONALGOVERNMENTPOLICIESANDNONDEMOCRATICINSTITUTIONSPROMOTEEXCESSIVECONCENTRATIONTHEEXTENTTOWHICHTHEURBANPOPULATIONOFACOUNTRYISCONCENTRATEDINONEORTWOMAJORMETROPOLITANAREASEXCEPTINFORMERPLANNEDECONOMIESWHEREMIGRATIONRESTRICTIONSAREENFORCEDTHESELITERATURESASSUMETHATTHEREISANOPTIMALLEVELOFURBANIZATIONORANOPTIMALLEVELOFURBANCONCENTRATION,BUTNORESEARCHTODATEHASQUANTITATIVELYEXAMINEDTHEASSUMPTIONANDASKEDTHEBASIC“SOWHAT“QUESTIONHOWGREATARETHEECONOMICLOSSESFROMSIGNIFICANTDEVIATIONSFROMANYOPTIMALDEGREESOFURBANCONCENTRATIONORRATESOFURBANIZATIONTHISPAPERSHOWSTHAT1THEREISABESTDEGREEOFURBANCONCENTRATION,INTERMSOFMAXIMIZINGPRODUCTIVITYGROWTH2THATBESTDEGREEVARIESWITHTHELEVELOFDEVELOPMENTANDCOUNTRYSIZE,AND3OVERORUNDERCONCENTRATIONCANBEVERYCOSTLYINTERMSOFPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHTHEPAPERSHOWSALSOTHATPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHISNOTSTRONGLYAFFECTEDBYURBANIZATIONPERSERAPIDURBANIZATIONHASOFTENOCCURREDINTHEFACEOFLOWORNEGATIVEECONOMICGROWTHOVERSOMEDECADESMOREOVER,URBANIZATIONISATRANSITORYPHENOMENONWHEREMANYCOUNTRIESDEVELOPMENTOFER,1977FALLENBUCHL,1977THEMOREEXTENSIVELITERATUREONTHEDEGREEOFURBANCONCENTRATIONANDCHANGESINTHATDEGREEWHICHOCCURSASURBANIZATIONANDGROWTHPROCEEDHASAVARIETYOFSTRANDSCOUNTRIESANDINTERNATIONALPOLICYOFFICIALSWORRYABOUTWHETHERKEYCITIESARETOOBIGORTOOSMALLRENAUD,1981UN,1993WDR,2000ANDOVERTHEYEARSVARIOUSCOUNTRIESSUCHASEGYPT,BRAZIL,KOREA,MEXICO,ANDCHINAHAVEPURSUEDMEDIUMSIZECITYPROGRAMSDESIGNEDTOFORESTALLTHEGROWTHOFLARGERCITIESHENDERSON,1988ADESANDGLAESER,1995INTERNATIONALAGENCIESPRESUMETHATMANYOFTHEWORLDSMEGACITIESAREOVERPOPULATED,ATCONSIDERABLECOSTTOTHOSEECONOMIESTHEUN1993ASKSHOWBAD“THENEGATIVEFACTORSASSOCIATEDWITHVERYLARGECITIES“NEEDTOGET“BEFOREITISINTHESELFINTERESTOFTHOSEINCONTROLTOENCOURAGEDEVELOPMENTOFALTERNATIVECENTERS“THESAMEREPORTWARNSOF“UNBALANCEDURBANHIERARCHIES“ANDTHECRIME,CONGESTIONANDSOCIALINEQUALITYINMEGACITIESTHEWORLDDEVELOPMENTREPORT2000HASACHAPTER7ONTHEGRIMLIFEOFPEOPLEINMEGACITIESINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESANDTHEECONOMISTINONEOFITSSPECIALSURVEYSHASPOSEDTHEQUESTIONDIRECTLYJULY29,1995DOTHESPLENDORSOFLARGECITIESOUTWEIGHTHEIRDARKSIDETHEEFFECTSOFURBANCONCENTRATIONONGROWTHDEVELOPMENTINTHISSECTION,IEXAMINETHEEFFECTOFURBANCONCENTRATIONONPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHISTARTWITHURBANCONCENTRATION,ORPRIMACY,BECAUSETHATEXAMINATIONYIELDSTHEKEYRESULTSTHEEXAMINATIONALSODEVELOPSTHEMETHODOLOGYTHATISTHENAPPLIEDTOTHEEXAMINATIONOFTHEEFFECTOFURBANIZATIONONGROWTHTHEFIRSTISSUEISHOWTOMEASUREURBANCONCENTRATIONTHEREARETHREEMEASURESTHATPEOPLEUSEFIRST,WHEATONANDSHISHIDO1981ANDHENDERSON1988USETHESTANDARDHIRSCHMANHERFINDAHLINDEXOFCONCENTRATIONWHICHINANURBANCONTEXTISTHESUMOFSQUAREDSHARESOFEVERYCITYINACOUNTRYINNATIONALURBANPOPULATION

簡(jiǎn)介：中國(guó)地質(zhì)大學(xué)長(zhǎng)城學(xué)院地質(zhì)英語(yǔ)論文系別地球科學(xué)與地球科學(xué)與資源系源系專業(yè)資源勘源勘查工程工程學(xué)生姓名學(xué)生姓名學(xué)號(hào)03410501指導(dǎo)教師2012年12月16日FORMEDINTHEGROUNDAFEWKILOMETERSTOTENSOFKILOMETERSTOWTHETOWTHEFORMATIONFORMATIONCONDITIONSCONDITIONSOFOFMAGMATICMAGMATICDEPOSITSDEPOSITSMAGMADEPOSITSAREMAINLYDERIVEDFROMTHEMAGMA,ITISTHECOMBINEDEFFECTSOFTHEPRODUCTBYAVARIETYOFGEOLOGICALFACTORS,WHICHPLAYINGALEADINGROLEISTHEGEOCHEMISTRYOFOREFORMINGELEMENTSTRAITS,THEMAGMATICROCKCONDITIONS,TECTONICCONDITIONSANDPHYSICALANDCHEMICALCONDITIONSANDSOON1、CONTROLTHECONDITIONSOFMAGMATICROCKSFORMEDBYMAGMATICDEPOSITSMAGMAISTHEMAINPROVIDEROFTHEMETALLOGENICMATERIALOFTHEMAGMATICDEPOSITSANDTHEMEDIUMOFCONTAININGMINERALMEDIUMTHEREFORE,HOWMUCHOFTHECONTENTOFUSEFULCOMPONENTSOFMAGMAISTHEPOSSIBILITYOFTHEFORMATIONOFMAGMATICDEPOSITSIMAGMATICROCKSMETALLOGENICSPECIALIZATIONMETALLOGENICSPECIALIZATIONOFMAGMATICROCKSINTHEGENESISOFMAGMATICROCKSWITHENDOGENOUSDEPOSITSSHOWEDREGULARCONTACT,ANDSPECIFICTYPESOFMAGMATICROCKSAREOFTENPRODUCEDSPECIFICTYPESOFDEPOSITSAWITHMAFICANDULTRAMAFICINTRUSIVEROCKSRELATEDDEPOSITSMAFICANDULTRAMAFICROCKISTHECOMPLEXIGNEOUSCOMPLEXFORMEDBYTHECOMBINATIONOFAVARIETYOFROCKTYPES,ROCKTYPESFROMASINGLEROCKCOMPOSEDOFROCKMASSISRELATIVELYRARETHESIZEOFTHEROCKMASSRANGINGMOSTLYSMALL,ANDROCKSTRAINS,ROCKCOVER,ROCK,BEDROCKISTHEMOSTCOMMONFORMOFTHEROCKMASSWITHFACIESANDTHEDIFFERENTCOMBINATIONS,THEMAFICANDULTRAMAFICROCKSCANBEDIVIDEDINTOTHREETYPESBMINERALDEPOSITSASSOCIATEDWITHSYENITE,NEPHELINESYENITEANDCARBONATEIGNEOUSCOMPLEXRELATINGTOMAGMATICDEPOSITSOFTHESEROCKSAREMOSTLYPRODUCEDWITHTHEFORMOFROCKSTRAIN,THEDIFFERENTCOMPONENTSOFROCKMASSFACIESZONEOFTENHASRINGDISTRIBUTIONIITHEROLEOFTHEVOLATILECOMPONENTSINTHEMAGMATHEMAGMAVOLATILECOMPONENTSHAVETHELOWMELTINGPOINT,HIGHLYVOLATILEANDTHEYCANDELAYTHECONDENSATIONRATEOFTHEMAGMA,MAKETHEMAGMAHAVEMOREFULLYDIFFERENTIATIONIIIMAGMATICASSIMILATIONHAVEANINFLUENCEONTHEMINERALIZATIONOFTHEMAGMADEPOSITSIVBEYONDONEPERIODOFMAGMAINTRUSIONONCONTROLOFTHEMINERALIZATION2、TECTONICCONDITIONSTHATCONTROLTHEFORMATIONOFMAGMATICDEPOSITSTECTONICSHAVEAMAJORIMPACTONTHETYPEOFMAGMATICDEPOSITS,DISTRIBUTION,THEMOSTMAGMATICDEPOSITSASSOCIATEDWITHMAFICANDULTRAMAFICIGNEOUSROCKSONTHECAUSESANDSPACEMAFICAND

簡(jiǎn)介：中南林業(yè)科技大學(xué)涉外學(xué)院科技文獻(xiàn)檢索課程“文獻(xiàn)綜述”評(píng)分表學(xué)生姓名尹志剛完成時(shí)間2017年1月指導(dǎo)老師彭琛文獻(xiàn)綜述中引用文獻(xiàn)情況（學(xué)生填寫(xiě)）（學(xué)生填寫(xiě)）文獻(xiàn)總數(shù)22篇（部），其中期刊論文11篇，教材著作6部，其它文獻(xiàn)5篇（部）文獻(xiàn)時(shí)間跨度2001年2015年（以下由教師填寫(xiě)）（以下由教師填寫(xiě)）序號(hào)評(píng)分內(nèi)容滿分實(shí)際得分1是否全面收集了有關(guān)的文獻(xiàn)資料202是否充分介紹了與主題內(nèi)容相關(guān)的研究開(kāi)發(fā)的歷史與現(xiàn)狀303是否總結(jié)了已有的學(xué)術(shù)觀點(diǎn)、理論和方法204是否在已有成果的基礎(chǔ)上闡明本人的觀點(diǎn)55是否能預(yù)示今后可能的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)及研究方向56行文是否流暢，綜述能力如何107是否按要求設(shè)置文檔格式10總分100在線考試系統(tǒng)文獻(xiàn)綜述在線考試系統(tǒng)文獻(xiàn)綜述【摘要】【摘要】通過(guò)軟件進(jìn)行考試的方式被稱為無(wú)紙化考試,隨著無(wú)紙化考試的誕生,原始的考試方式已經(jīng)漸漸地被無(wú)紙化考試所取代。在線考試系統(tǒng)是基于C編程技術(shù)把學(xué)科、試題、電腦改卷、結(jié)果查詢的部分管理工作集成到一個(gè)同一的平臺(tái),各管理人員能夠及時(shí)、準(zhǔn)確的了解學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)生活情況。同時(shí),也可以方便老師針對(duì)學(xué)生的不同情況進(jìn)行分層次幫助引導(dǎo)?？荚囀菍?duì)學(xué)生所學(xué)知識(shí)檢查、掌握和理解知識(shí)程度的重要手段,無(wú)紙化的考卷,無(wú)紙化考試的隨時(shí)性,隨地性,這些特點(diǎn)都是研究并開(kāi)發(fā)網(wǎng)絡(luò)考試系統(tǒng)具有重要積極的意義,將給學(xué)生和老師帶來(lái)了極大的便利。無(wú)紙化考試,環(huán)保、節(jié)約資源,適應(yīng)當(dāng)代社會(huì)發(fā)展的發(fā)展。本文重點(diǎn)論述了由于網(wǎng)絡(luò)的存在擴(kuò)大了學(xué)校的服務(wù)范圍，為學(xué)校的管理提供了更多的條件。對(duì)此做出了詳細(xì)的調(diào)查，可行性研究和分析。系統(tǒng)采用了B/S結(jié)構(gòu)，在網(wǎng)絡(luò)上建立學(xué)校自己的教育網(wǎng)站。系統(tǒng)開(kāi)發(fā)經(jīng)歷了系統(tǒng)分析、系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)和系統(tǒng)實(shí)施三個(gè)階段。從設(shè)計(jì)方案的提出，經(jīng)過(guò)詳細(xì)的調(diào)查，分析了方案的可行性和必要性，通過(guò)詳細(xì)的系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)，力圖提高系統(tǒng)的集成性和快捷性；并在系統(tǒng)實(shí)施階段收集了大量的實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)，以便測(cè)試階段系統(tǒng)的準(zhǔn)確性和穩(wěn)定性。關(guān)鍵詞關(guān)鍵詞管理員維護(hù)系統(tǒng)，考生考試系統(tǒng)，管理員維護(hù)系統(tǒng)，考生考試系統(tǒng)，B/SB/S模式，模式，ASPASP技術(shù)技術(shù)【前言前言】考試是教學(xué)過(guò)程中的一個(gè)重要環(huán)節(jié)，通過(guò)考試，教師可以了解學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)效果，為改進(jìn)教學(xué)提供依據(jù)；學(xué)生則通過(guò)考試了解自己對(duì)內(nèi)容的掌握情況，增強(qiáng)學(xué)習(xí)興趣。傳統(tǒng)的考試方式往往使人們受到地域、時(shí)間、場(chǎng)所等各種各樣的限制，造成有些人的不便。在網(wǎng)絡(luò)遍布的今天，將考試系統(tǒng)應(yīng)用在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上是現(xiàn)代考試系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。隨著計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)和互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的快速發(fā)展，人類已經(jīng)進(jìn)入了信息時(shí)代，也有人稱為數(shù)字化時(shí)代。在數(shù)字化的網(wǎng)絡(luò)環(huán)境下，學(xué)生希望得到個(gè)性化的滿足，根據(jù)自己的情況進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，同時(shí)也希望能夠得到科學(xué)的評(píng)價(jià)，老師希望有效改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有的考試模式，提高考試的效率；教育機(jī)構(gòu)也希望給網(wǎng)上的學(xué)生提供更全面、靈活的服務(wù)，全面準(zhǔn)確地對(duì)學(xué)生進(jìn)行跟蹤和評(píng)論。在線考試系統(tǒng)正是迎合這一時(shí)代需求而開(kāi)發(fā)的，它旨在探索一種以互聯(lián)網(wǎng)為基礎(chǔ)的考試模式。通過(guò)這種新的模式，為學(xué)校創(chuàng)造一種新的考試環(huán)境，提高考試工作效率和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化水平，使學(xué)校管理者、教師和學(xué)生可以隨時(shí)隨地通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)進(jìn)行考試。

簡(jiǎn)介：華北電力大學(xué)科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論計(jì)（論文）附文）附件外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯學(xué)號(hào)號(hào)071914030401姓名名陳科池所在系別所在系別建筑工程系專業(yè)班級(jí)專業(yè)班級(jí)土木工程07K1班指導(dǎo)教師指導(dǎo)教師史彩君原文標(biāo)題原文標(biāo)題THEINTRODUCTIONOFREINFORCEDCONCRETEANDEARTHWORK2011年4月17日2的地點(diǎn)去幫助下一臺(tái)鏟運(yùn)機(jī)。斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)通常是功率非常大的機(jī)械，許多廠家制造的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為8M3，滿載時(shí)可達(dá)10M3。最大的自行式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為19立方米（滿載時(shí)為25M3），由430馬力的牽引發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)。翻斗機(jī)可能是使用最為普遍的輪胎式運(yùn)輸設(shè)備，因?yàn)樗鼈冞€可以被用來(lái)送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗車的車斗位于大橡膠輪胎車輪前軸的上方，盡管鉸接式翻斗車的卸料方向有很多種，但大多數(shù)車斗是向前翻轉(zhuǎn)的。最小的翻斗車的容量大約為05立方米，而最大的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)型翻斗車的容量大約為45M3。特殊型式的翻斗車包括容量為4M3的自裝式翻斗車，和容量約為05M3的鉸接式翻斗車。必須記住翻斗車與自卸卡車之間的區(qū)別。翻斗車車斗向前傾翻而司機(jī)坐在后方卸載，因此有時(shí)被稱為后卸卡車。3結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度規(guī)范的主要目的是提供一般性的設(shè)計(jì)原理和計(jì)算方法，以便驗(yàn)算結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度。就目前的趨勢(shì)而言，安全系數(shù)與所使用的材料性質(zhì)及其組織情況無(wú)關(guān)，通常把它定義為發(fā)生破壞的條件與結(jié)構(gòu)可預(yù)料的最不利的工作條件之比值。這個(gè)比值還與結(jié)構(gòu)的破壞概率（危險(xiǎn)率）成反比。破壞不僅僅指結(jié)構(gòu)的整體破壞，而且還指結(jié)構(gòu)不能正常的使用，或者，用更為確切的話來(lái)說(shuō)，把破壞看成是結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)達(dá)到不能繼續(xù)承擔(dān)其設(shè)計(jì)荷載的“極限狀態(tài)”。通常有兩種類型的極限狀態(tài)，即（1）強(qiáng)度極限狀態(tài)，它相當(dāng)于結(jié)構(gòu)能夠達(dá)到的最大承載能力。其例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)的局部屈曲和整體不穩(wěn)定性；某此界面失效，隨后結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)構(gòu)；疲勞破壞；引起結(jié)構(gòu)幾何形狀顯著變化的彈性變形或塑性變形或徐變；結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)交變荷載、火災(zāi)和爆炸的敏感性。（2）使用極限狀態(tài)，它對(duì)應(yīng)著結(jié)構(gòu)的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)失穩(wěn)之前的過(guò)大變形和位移；早期開(kāi)裂或過(guò)大的裂縫；較大的振動(dòng)和腐蝕。根據(jù)不同的安全度條件，可以把結(jié)構(gòu)驗(yàn)算所采用的計(jì)算方法分成（1）確定性的方法，在這種方法中，把主要參數(shù)看作非隨機(jī)參數(shù)。（2）概率方法，在這種方法中，主要參數(shù)被認(rèn)為是隨機(jī)參數(shù)。此外，根據(jù)安全系數(shù)的不同用途，可以把結(jié)構(gòu)的計(jì)算方法分為（1）容許應(yīng)力法，在這種方法中，把結(jié)構(gòu)承受最大荷載時(shí)計(jì)算得到的應(yīng)力與經(jīng)過(guò)按規(guī)定的安全系數(shù)進(jìn)行折減后的材料強(qiáng)度作比較。（2）極限狀態(tài)法，在這種方法中，結(jié)構(gòu)的工作狀態(tài)是以其最大強(qiáng)度為依據(jù)來(lái)衡量的。由理論分析確定的這一最大強(qiáng)度應(yīng)不小于結(jié)構(gòu)承受計(jì)算荷載所算得的強(qiáng)度（極限狀態(tài)）。計(jì)算荷載等于分別乘以荷載系數(shù)的活載與恒載之和。把對(duì)應(yīng)于不乘以荷載系數(shù)的活載和恒載的工作（使用）條件的應(yīng)力與規(guī)定值（使用極限狀態(tài)）相比較。根據(jù)前兩種方法和后兩種方法的四種可能組合，我們可以得到一些