歷史學外文翻譯

1、<p>　　the Song Dynasty.Foollwing the Tang collapse warlords ruled China until he Song Dynasty reimposed centralized imperial rule in the ate tenth century.Though survived for more than three centuries, the Song dyna

2、sty(960-1279C.E.)never built a very powerful state.Song rulers mistrusted military leaders,and they placed much more emphasis on civil administration,industry ,education,and the arts than on military affairs.</p>

3、<p>　　The first Song emperor,Song Taizu(reigned 960-1279C.E.),himself inaugurated this policy. Song Taizu began his career a a junior military officer serving one of the most powerful warlords in northern China.He h

4、ad a reputation for honesty and effectiveness,and in 960 his troops proclaimed him emperor.During the next several years,he and his army subjected the warlords to their authority and consolidated Song control throughout

5、China.He then persuaded his generals to retire honorably to a life of l</p><p>　　Song Taizu regarded all state officials,even minor functionaries in distant provinces,as servants of the imperial government.I

6、n exchange for their loyalty,Song rulers rewarded these officials handsomely.They vastly expanded the bureaucracy based on merit by creating more opportunities for individuals to seek a Confucian education and take civil

7、 service examinations.They accepted many more candidates into the bureaucracy than their Sui and Tang predecessors,and they provided generous salaries for</p><p>　　The song approach to administration resulte

8、d in a more centralized imperial government than earlier Chinese dynasties had enjoyed.But it caused two mig problems that weakened the dynasty and eventually brought about its fall.The first prolem was financial:the eno

9、rmous Song bureaucracy devoured China’s surplus production.As the number of bureaucrats and the size of their rewards grew,the imperial treasury came under tremendous pressure.Efforts to raise taxes aggravated the peasan

10、ts,who mounted tw</p><p>　　The second problem was military.Scholar bureaucrats generally had little military education and little talent for military affairs,yet they led Song armies in the field and made mi

11、litary and make military decisions.It was no coincidence that nomadic people flourished along China’s northern border throughout the Song dynasty.From the early tenth through the early twelfth century,the Khitan,a semino

12、madic people from Manchuria,ruled a vast empire stretching from northern Korea to Mongolia.During th</p><p>　　Neo-confucianismThe Song emperors did not persecute Buddhists,but they actively supported native

13、Chinese cultural tradition in hopes of limiting the influence of foreign religions.They contributed particularly to the Confucian.They sponsored the studies of Confucian scholars,for example,and subsidized the printing a

14、ng dissemination of Confucian writings.</p><p>　　Yet the Confucian tradition of the Song dynasty differed from that of earlier times.The earliest Confucians had concentrated resolutely on practical issuses o

15、f politics and morality,since they took the organization of a stable order as their principal concern . Confucians of the Song dynasty studied the classic works of their tradition,but they also became familiar with the w

16、ritings of Buddhists.They found much to admire in Buddhist thought.Buddhism not only offered a tradition of logical though</p><p>　　The most important representative of Song neo-Confucianism was the philosop

17、her Zhu xi (1130-1200C.E.).A prolific writer,Zhu Xi maintained a depp commitment to Confucian values emphasizing proper personal behavior and social harmony.Among.his writings was an influential treatise entitled Family

18、Rituals that provided detailed instructions for weddings,funerals,v eneration of ancestors,and otheir family ceremonies.As a good Confucian.Zhu Xi considered it a matter of the highest importance that indi</p><

19、;p>　　Yet Zhu Xi became fascinated with the philosophical and speculative features of Buuddhist thought.He argued in good Confucian fashion for the observance of high moral standards,and he believed that academic and p

20、hilosophical investigations were important for practical affairs.But he concentrated his own efforts on abstract and abstruse issues of more theoretical than practical significance.He wrote extensively on metaphysical th

21、emes such as the nature of reality.He argued in a manner reminiscent</p><p>　　Neo-Confucianism ranks as important cultural development for two reasons.First,it illustrates the deep influence of Buddhism in C

22、hinese society.Even though the neo-Confucians rejected Buddhism as a faith,their writings adapted Buddhist themes and reasoning to Confucian interests and values.Second,neo-Confucianism influenced east Asian thought over

23、 a very long term.InChina,neo-Confucianism enjoyed the status of an officially recognized creed from the Song dynasty until the early twentieth century</p><p>　　( Jerry H.Bentley,Herbert F.Ziegler.Traditions

24、 & encounters:a global perspective on the past[M].New York,McGraw-Hill Higher Education,2003.)</p><p>　　Sung golden age</p><p>　　The Sung emperors wete markedly passive in their external rel

25、ations compared to their Han and Tang predecessors They did not begin with great campaigns reestablishing imperial frontiers in the heart of Eurasia.Instead the second Sung emperor modestly attempted to regain from nomad

26、 control merely the territoty between Peking and the Great Wall.But he was disastrously defeated,and his successor gave up claim to this region,and even paid the nomads an annual “gift”,which in fact was thinly veiled t&

27、lt;/p><p>　　This was a grave weakness for the Sung dynasty,leaving it vulnerable to nomadic incursions.The policy of paying“gift”proved viable foe a century and a half,but disaster came when a Sung emperor made

28、 a rash attempt to recover the northeastern lands.He was encouraged to do so when the ruling nomads in that region were defeated by newcomers from North Manchuria.Taking advantage of what appeared to be an opportunity,th

29、e emperor sent his armies into Manchuria.Instead of easy victory they sustained a </p><p>　　This dynasty was much berated by later Chinese historians for failing initially to regain the outlying provinces,an

30、d then suffering the loss of the entire northern half of country.This criticism cannot be denied, yet it is also true that in many respects Chinese civilization reached its apogee during the centuries of the T’ang and th

31、e Sung.This was particularly so in the field of culture.During these centuries appeared the vast encyclopedias of Buddhist texts and Confucian classics;the comprehen</p><p>　　In addition to its cultural atta

32、inments,the Sung period is noteworthy for a veritable commercial revolution that was quite significant for all Eurasia.The roots are to be found in a marked increase in the productivity of china’s economy Steady technolo

33、gical improvement raised the output of the traditional industries agriculture likewise was stimulated by the introduction of a quickly maturing strain of rice that allowed two crops to be grown each season where only one

34、 had been possible before.Al</p><p>　　This increasing productivity made possible a corresponding increase in population,which in turn further stimulated production in interacting fashion.The volume of trade

35、also rose with the quickening tempo of economic activity.For the first time large cities appeared in China that were primarily commercial rather than administrative centers.</p><p>　　Even more marked than th

36、is spurt in domestic trade was that in foreign trade.Considerable overseas commerce had been carried on since Han times,but during the TAng ,and more especially during the Sung,the volume of foreign trade far surpassed a

37、ll previous records.The basis for this burgeoning trade was,of course,the unprecedented productivity of China’s economy.Important also were the improvements in maritime technology,including the use of compass,of an adjus

38、table centerboard keel,and of cotton</p><p>　　The end result was that for the first time the seaports rather than the old overland routes become China’s principal contact with the outside world.Indicative of

39、 China’s economic leadership at this time is the fact that her exports were mostly manufactured goods such as silk,porcelains,books and paintings,while the imports were mostly raw materials such as spices,minerals,and ho

40、rses.Finally it should be noted that during the Sung the Chinese themselves for the first time engaged on a large scale</p><p>　　(Leften Stavros Stavrianos.The world to 1500 :A global history[M].Prentice-Hal

41、l,Inc,1970.)</p><p>　　Song dynasty .(960 – 1279) Chinese dynasty that united the entire country until 1127 and the southern portion until 1279, during which time northern China was controlled by the Juchen t

42、ribes. During the Song, commerce flourished, paper currency came into increasing use, and several cities boasted populations exceeding one million people. Wang Anshi worked for more equitable taxation and state-centred s

43、olutions for China's problems. Widespread printing brought increased literacy and a broader eli</p><p>　　Chinese examination system .In China, system of competitive examinations for recruiting officials

44、that linked state and society and dominated education from the Song dynasty (960 – 1279) onward, though its roots date to the imperial university established in the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). Candidates faced fierce

45、competition in a series of exams dealing primarily with Confucian texts and conducted on the prefectural, provincial, and national levels. Despite a persistent tendency to emphasize </p><p>　　Confucianism. S

46、cholarly tradition and way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th – 5th century BC and followed by the Chinese for more than two millennia. Though not organized as a religion, it has deeply influenced East Asian spir

47、itual and political life in a comparable manner. The core idea is ren ("humaneness," "benevolence"), signifying excellent character in accord with li (ritual norms), zhong (loyalty to one's true n

48、ature), shu (reciprocity), and xiao (filial piety). Together these co</p><p>　　Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi .(born 1032, Henan, China-died 1085, Henan) (born 1033, Henan-died 1107, Henan) Brothers who developed Ne

49、o-Confucianism into an organized philosophical school. Cheng Hao studied Buddhism, Daoism, and then Confucianism. He was dismissed from Chinese government service for opposing the reforms of Wang Anshi, and he joined his

50、 brother in Henan, where they gathered a circle of disciples. Cheng Yi's stern morality led him to decline high office and criticize those in power. He </p><p>　　Zhu Xi (born Oct. 18, 1130, Yu-hsi, Fukie

51、n province, China - died April 23, 1200, China) Chinese philosopher and proponent of Neo-Confucianism. The son of a minor government official, he was educated in the Confucian tradition and entered government service. In

52、terested in history, he revised Sima Guang's famous history so that it would illustrate moral principles in government. In 1189 he began a commentary on the Daxue; he continued working on the Daxue all his life. Phil

53、osophically, his though</p><p>　　Lu Xiangshan .(born 1139, Kiangsi, China-died Jan.10, 1193, China) Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher of the Southern Song dynasty. A government official and a teacher, he was

54、 the rival of the great Neo-Confucian rationalist Zhu Xi. Lu taught that the highest knowledge of the way (dao) comes from constant inner reflection and self-examination. In this process, one develops or recovers the fun

55、damental goodness of one's nature. Lu's writings were published after his death, and his thought was revis</p><p>　　(Encyclopedia concise Britannica[M]. Chicago,Britannica Encyclopaedia, inc,2006.)&l

56、t;/p><p>　　宋代。十世紀后期，在結(jié)束了唐末的范鎮(zhèn)割據(jù)之后，宋朝重新建立了中央集權(quán)統(tǒng)治。盡管他有幸存在了三個多世紀，但宋朝（公元960—1279年）并沒有成為一個非常強大的國家。宋朝的統(tǒng)治者給與樂文人政治、手工業(yè)、教育和藝術(shù)更多的重視比軍事事務。</p><p>　　宋朝的第一個皇帝宋太祖（公元960—976年）首先開始實行這項政策。宋太祖以一個低級將領(lǐng)的身份開始了他的軍事生涯，他在中

57、國北部最強大的藩鎮(zhèn)之一中任職。他有一個正直和辦事效率高的美名，在公元960年，他的部下?lián)砹⑺隽嘶实邸Ｔ诮酉聛淼膸啄昀?，他和他的部下削弱了其它的一些割?jù)政權(quán)，從而鞏固了宋在中國大地上的統(tǒng)治。然后，他說服他的部將隱退后去過一種悠閑的生活，以至于他們不會試圖取代它。同時，他著手組建了一個極權(quán)化的政府，把軍隊置于嚴密的監(jiān)督之下。</p><p>　　宋太祖把所有的國家官員甚至包括邊遠州縣的小官吏都作為強權(quán)政府的仆人。為

58、了讓官員們保持忠誠，宋朝統(tǒng)治者給他們很高的俸祿。統(tǒng)治者通過創(chuàng)造機會讓人們接受儒家教育，讓他們參加科舉考試，以此來擴充官僚隊伍。與隋唐的統(tǒng)治者相比，宋統(tǒng)治者讓更多的士人進入官僚機構(gòu)。對于那些辦事效率高的管員，統(tǒng)治者給與他們優(yōu)厚的俸祿。并且還讓文官來管理軍事。</p><p>　　宋代管理國家的方法帶來了一個更加集權(quán)化的政府比以前的朝代。但它導致了兩個嚴重的問題，他們削弱了宋朝并最終導致了它的滅亡。第一個問題是財政，

59、龐大的官僚機構(gòu)吞噬了中國過多的財富。隨著官僚的數(shù)量和他們俸祿的增長，國家的財政面臨著嚴重的壓力。沉重的賦稅加重了人民的負擔，在十二世紀早期，農(nóng)民發(fā)動了兩次重大的起義。但是，在那個時代，文人控制著政府，需要指出的事，去改革這種體制幾乎是不可能的。</p><p>　　第二個問題是軍事，文官一般沒有受過軍事教育，且缺少軍事才能，但他們在戰(zhàn)場上領(lǐng)兵并且做出軍事決定。在宋代，中國北部邊疆的游牧民族的壯大并不是一種單純的巧

60、合。從十世紀早期到十二世紀早期，來自滿洲里的半游牧民族契丹人建立了一個強大的國家，并把帝國從朝鮮北部擴張到蒙古利亞。在宋代，契丹人索要和接收來自北宋的大量的絲綢和銀幣等貢物。在十二世紀的早期，游牧民族女真人征服了契丹，侵占了中國北部和宋的都城。之后南宋和金以長江和黃河為界直到1279年，這一年蒙古滅了南宋統(tǒng)一中國。</p><p>　　理學。宋朝皇帝并沒有迫害佛教徒，但他們積極支持中國本土文化，希望以此限制外來宗

61、教對中國的影響。他們積極推崇儒家文化。例如，他們支持儒家學者的研究，并資助儒家作品的印刷與傳播。</p><p>　　在宋代，儒家傳統(tǒng)不同于以前。最早的儒家學者集中于研究政治領(lǐng)域和道德領(lǐng)域的現(xiàn)實問題，因為他們把建立一個穩(wěn)定的社會秩序作為自己關(guān)心的主要事情。宋代的儒學者研究儒家經(jīng)典作品，但他們也精通佛教的著作。在佛教徒的思想中，他們發(fā)現(xiàn)了許多值得崇敬的東西。佛教不僅提供了邏輯思維和論辯的傳統(tǒng)，而且也解決一些問題，如

62、靈魂的本質(zhì)，個人與宇宙的關(guān)系，這些都是儒家學者沒有系統(tǒng)研究過的問題。因此，宋代的儒學者吸取了來自佛教的許多精髓。他們的思想不僅反映了佛教的影響也反映了早期儒學者的價值，因此被稱為理學。 </p><p>　　宋代理學最重要的代表是朱熹（1130-1200）。作為一名多產(chǎn)的作家，朱熹對強調(diào)個人行為和社會和諧的儒家價值觀做出了重大的貢獻。他的作品中，有一個非常有影響的著作被命名為《家庭禮儀》，它主要描寫了婚禮、喪葬、

63、敬祖、祭祀等內(nèi)容。作為一個杰出的儒學者，朱熹認為個人需要做的最重要的事是應在家庭和社會中發(fā)揮應有的作用。</p><p>　　朱熹還致力于佛教思想中的哲學和思辨。他認為人們要遵守高尚的道德準則，并且也相信對于現(xiàn)實的事情而言，研究和調(diào)查是非常重要的。但他卻把精力集中在抽象和深奧的理論問題上，而不是現(xiàn)實問題。他寫了大量關(guān)于形而上的著作，如現(xiàn)實的本質(zhì)。他推崇柏拉圖式的論辯方式，那就是所有物質(zhì)都有兩種元素組成：“理”和“

64、氣”，這些類似柏拉圖的形式與實質(zhì)的原則，“理”是事物的本質(zhì)，“氣”是事物的形式。 </p><p>　　理學作為一重要的文化傳承，主要有兩個原因。首先，它說明了佛教在中國的深遠影響。盡管理學反對把佛教作為一種信仰，但理學家的一些作品與佛教題材相符合，他們的理論符合儒家的利益觀。第二，理學在相當長的一段時間內(nèi)影響著東亞地區(qū)，在中國，從宋代到二十世紀前期，理學一直被作為正統(tǒng)思想，并且它影響韓國、越南、日本長達五百年以

65、上，在這些國家，理學涉及哲學、政治和道德思想等多個領(lǐng)域。</p><p><b>　　宋朝的黃金時代</b></p><p>　　在對外關(guān)系上，宋代的皇帝與漢唐的統(tǒng)治者相比顯然是相當被動的。他們并沒有采取一些措施，在歐亞大陸的中心地帶拓展國家的疆界。相反，宋代的第二代皇帝只是想收復燕京至長城間被游牧民族控制的疆土。但不幸的事，他被打敗，并且他的子孫放棄了收回這一地區(qū)，

66、甚至要給游牧民族一件不尋常“禮物”，實際上那是貢物。宋從未收復東北的疆土，也沒有為收復西北的疆土提供陸上路線。</p><p>　　宋有一個嚴重的弱點，使它無力應對游牧民族的襲擊。歲幣政策實行了一個半世紀，當宋朝的皇帝試圖收復東北地區(qū)時，災難就到來了。當執(zhí)政的游牧民族在那一地區(qū)被來自滿洲里的新的到來者打敗時，宋朝的皇帝被鼓舞著去那樣做。為了充分利用這個時機，宋朝的皇帝派他的軍隊進入滿洲里。宋并沒有獲勝，相反，他們

67、被打得一敗涂地，致使華北地區(qū)遭到大量入侵。宋戰(zhàn)敗，他的疆土僅剩長江及其以南的地區(qū)。因此，宋代的后半期從1127年至1279年，它被稱為南宋；宋代的前半期從960年至1127年，它被稱為北宋。 </p><p>　　宋朝被后來的中國史學家指責為，最初并為收復邊遠省份，后來又痛苦的失去國家的整個北半部分。我們無法否認這種批評，但中國文明經(jīng)過隋唐幾個世紀的發(fā)展，在許多方面已達到高峰，這也是事實。尤其是在文化領(lǐng)域，這幾個

68、世紀出現(xiàn)了關(guān)于佛教題材和儒家經(jīng)典作品的百科全書；不同派別的學者寫的綜合性的歷史書籍；詩人和藝術(shù)家的杰作；被寫在卷軸上的書法和繪畫作品；直到現(xiàn)在才被充分理解的科學和技術(shù)。（見第12章第Ⅲ）</p><p>　　除了文化之外,宋朝時期值得注意的是它對整個歐亞大陸產(chǎn)生深遠影響的商業(yè)革命。最重要的是生產(chǎn)力的迅速提高。技術(shù)的改進促進了傳統(tǒng)手工業(yè)的發(fā)展。通過引進生長周期比較短的兩季稻，農(nóng)業(yè)也獲得迅速發(fā)展，以前只是種一季稻。新

69、的水利工程擴大了農(nóng)田的灌溉面積，需要強調(diào)的是，在十一世紀和十二世紀稻米收成成倍增長。</p><p>　　生產(chǎn)力的增長使人口的增長成為可能，人口的增長反過來又促進了生產(chǎn)力的增長。貿(mào)易額的增長也加快了經(jīng)濟活動的節(jié)奏。大型的城市首先在中國出現(xiàn)，他們主要是商業(yè)中心，而不是行政中心。</p><p>　　與國內(nèi)貿(mào)易相比，更加顯著的是國外貿(mào)易。從漢朝起，中國已經(jīng)進行海外貿(mào)易，但在唐朝，尤其是在宋朝，

70、對外貿(mào)易額遠遠超過以前的紀錄。當然，對外貿(mào)易最根本的是使中國經(jīng)濟獲得史無前例的發(fā)展。重要的是航海技術(shù)的提高，包括使用指南針、可調(diào)整的船骨、以及用棉帆代替竹帆。后來，對外貿(mào)易的步伐被穆斯林商人和一些航海家加快，那些航海家是那個時期亞洲海洋上的冒險家。</p><p>　　最后的結(jié)果是，海港取代陸上通道成為我國與外部世界聯(lián)系的主要通道。在那個時代，中國經(jīng)濟處于領(lǐng)先地位的主要標志是中國出口大量的制成品，譬如絲綢、瓷器、

71、書籍和繪畫。而進口的主要是原材料，如香料、礦物和馬匹。最后，應指出的是，宋代的中國人首先自己進行了大規(guī)模的海外貿(mào)易，而不再主要依靠外國的中介人。我們可以得出的一個結(jié)論是，中國在宋代的時候海上力量變得非常的強大。無論對于世界歷史還是中國歷史而言，這些潛力并未被意識到。同樣顯著的是，宋代名副其實的工業(yè)革命并未對中國社會產(chǎn)生重大的影響，相反的是，對于西方社會而言，他卻是一場名副其實的工業(yè)革命。</p><p><

72、b>　　大英百科全書</b></p><p>　　宋朝。（公元960-1279年）北宋統(tǒng)治中國直到1127年，南宋到1279年，南宋時中國的華北地區(qū)處于女真族的統(tǒng)治之下。在宋朝，商業(yè)繁盛，紙幣被大量使用，幾個城市以擁有百萬以上的人口而著稱。王安石通過賦稅改革和集中全力來解決中國的現(xiàn)實問題。印刷術(shù)的廣泛傳播推動了文學的發(fā)展，并且使杰出人物倍增。十二世紀，朱熹系統(tǒng)闡述了理學。宋代也是學術(shù)繁榮的時代，

73、有關(guān)建筑學和農(nóng)學的著作被廣泛發(fā)行，還有司馬光的史學著作《資治通鑒》（以史為鑒）。繪畫藝術(shù)在北宋達到頂峰，它以壯觀的建筑而著稱。</p><p>　　中國的科舉制度。在中國，從宋代起，競爭性的考試體系是為政府吸收官員，這些官員連接著地方和中央并控制了教育，它可以追溯到漢代（206BC-AD220）的太學。士子面臨著激烈的競爭，主要的是要通過一系列的儒學考試，主要進行鄉(xiāng)試、會試和殿試三的等級。但這種考試傾向于死記硬背

74、，使學生有一定的知識儲備，它培養(yǎng)了應試人才，適應了所謂的“天才”教育的要求。但這種體制太僵硬，以至于不能適應現(xiàn)代化的要求，到1905年被廢除。</p><p>　　理學。在中國，儒學在十一世紀得到了再次復興，它影響中國人的思想長達800年。這場運動要求在佛教和道教盛行的情況下重建儒家傳統(tǒng)的權(quán)威。他的兩個重要派別是“理學”（形式的學派）和“心學”（思維的學派），理學的主要代表是朱熹，心學的主要代表是陸象山和王陽明。

75、理學被禪宗佛教傳到日本，它成為土庫嘎瓦時期（公元1603-1867年）的主導哲學，它為當時的社會秩序提供了一個非常好的標準。他對古典文學的重視導致日本文學作品的更新立意。</p><p>　　程顥和程頤。（生于1032年，中國的河南-死于1085年，河南）（生于1033年，中國的河南-死于1107年，河南）他么兄弟倆把理學發(fā)展成一個新的哲學派別。程顥研究佛教、道教和儒教。由于反對王安石變法，他被貶職，之后，它加入

76、了他兄弟在河南的行列，在那他們匯集了許多門徒。程頤的道德準則使他謝絕了政府的任聘，并且他還批評他們。他兩次被治罪，又兩次被赦免。他們兄弟倆以“理”的這個概念建立了自己的哲學思想，程顥強調(diào)鎮(zhèn)靜、內(nèi)省，但程頤研究浩渺無邊的宇宙和強敵強調(diào)強參與意識。程顥的理想主義被陸象山繼承和發(fā)展，程頤的現(xiàn)實主義被朱熹繼承和發(fā)展。</p><p>　　朱熹。（生于1130年10月18日，中國的福建-死于1200年4月23日，中國）他精

77、通于理學研究，并且是理學的倡導者。他是一個低級官員的兒子，從小受到儒家的傳統(tǒng)教育，后來在官府中任職。由于對歷史非常感興趣，他校對了司馬光的著名歷史著作，以便于它能說明政府官員應遵守那些道德原則。1189年，他開始從事道學研究，并且在他的日常生活中他一直堅持從事道學研究。他的思想綜合了程顥、程貽、周敦頤（公元1017-1073年）和張載的思想，他還編寫了一些著作。他的著作主要涉及到《四書》、孔子的《論語》的和《孟子》，這些著作影響廣泛。他

78、的哲學思想強調(diào)邏輯、言行一致、思辨和探尋的價值。</p><p>　　陸象山。（生于1139年，中國的江西-死于1193年，中國）他是南宋理學的杰出代表。他既是一個政府官員，又是一位老師，它與理性主義者朱熹的思想正好相反。他教導學生，知識的最高境界來自于內(nèi)心的不斷反思和自我反省。在這一過程中，最根本的是恢復和發(fā)展人的基本美德。陸象山的著作在他死后出版了，他的思想在三個世紀以后被王陽明繼承和發(fā)展，王陽明建立了心學書