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1、<p>  New Public Management and the Quality of Government:</p><p>  Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada</p><p>  Peter Aucoin</p><p>  Dalhousie University</p

2、><p>  Halifax, Canada</p><p>  peter.aucoin@dal.ca</p><p>  Conference on ‘New Public Management and the Quality of Government’,</p><p>  SOG and the Quality of Governmen

3、t Institute,</p><p>  University of Gothenburg</p><p><b>  Sweden</b></p><p>  13-15 November 2008</p><p>  A tension between New Public Management (NPM) an

4、d good governance, including good public administration, has long been assumed by those who regard the structures and practices advocated and brought about by NPM as departing from the principles and norms of good govern

5、ance that underpinned traditional public administration (Savoie 1994). The concern has not abated (Savoie 2008). </p><p>  As this dynamic has played out over the past three decades, however, there emerged a

6、n even more significant challenge not only to the traditional structures, practices and values of the professional, non-partisan public service but also to those reforms introduced by NPM that have gained wide, if not un

7、iversal, acceptance as positive development in public administration. This challenge is what I call New Political Governance (NPG). It is NPG, and not NPM, I argue, that constitutes the principal </p><p>  I

8、 examine this phenomenon by looking primarily at the case of Canada, but with a number of comparative Westminster references. I consider the phenomenon to be an international one, affecting most, if not all, Western demo

9、cracies. The pressures outlined below are virtually the same everywhere. The responses vary somewhat because of political leadership and the institutional differences between systems, even in the Westminster systems. The

10、 phenomenon must also be viewed in the context of time, giv</p><p>  New Public Management in the Canadian Context</p><p>  Since the early 1980s, NPM has taken several different forms in variou

11、s jurisdictions. Adopting private-sector management practices was seen by some as a part, even if a minor part, of the broader neo-conservative/neo-liberal political economy movement that demanded wholesale privatization

12、 of government enterprises and public services, extensive deregulation of private enterprises, and significant reductions in public spending – ‘rolling back the state’, as it was put a at the outset (Hood 1991)</p>

13、<p>  By the turn of the century, moreover, NPM, as improved public management in this limited sense, was well embedded in almost all governments, at least as the norm (although it was not always or everywhere ref

14、erred to as NPM). This meant increased managerial authority, discretion and flexibility:</p><p>  ? for managing public resources (financial and human);</p><p>  ? for managing public-service de

15、livery systems; and,</p><p>  ? for collaborating with other public-sector agencies as well as with privatesector</p><p>  agencies in tackling horizontal – multi-organizational and/or multisect

16、oral</p><p><b>  – issues.</b></p><p>  This increased managerial authority, flexibility and discretion was, in some jurisdictions, notably the Britain and New Zealand, coupled with

17、increased organizational differentiation, as evidenced by a proliferation of departments and agencies with narrowed mandates, many with a single purpose. “Agencification’, however, was not a major focus reform in all jur

18、isdictions, including Canada and Australia where such change, if not on the margins, was clearly secondary to enhanced managerial authorit</p><p>  The major NPM innovations quickly led to concerns, especial

19、ly in those jurisdictions where these developments were most advanced, about a loss of public service coherence and corporate capacity, on the one hand, and a diminished sense of and commitment to public-service ethos, e

20、thics and values, on the other. Reactions to these concerns produced some retreat, reversals, and re-balancing of the systems in questions (Halligan 2006). Nowhere, however, was there a wholesale rejection of NPM, in the

21、o</p><p>  At the same time that NPM became a major force for change in public administration, however, it was accompanied by a companion force that saw political executives seeking to assert greater politic

22、al control over the administration and apparatus of the state, not only in the formulation of public policies but also in the administration of public services. Accordingly, from the start, at least in the Anglo-American

23、 systems, there was a fundamental paradox as political executives, on both the left </p><p>  The impetus for this dynamic lay in the dissatisfaction of many political executives with the ‘responsiveness’ of

24、 public servants to the political authority and policy agendas of these elected officials. Public choice and principal-agency theories</p><p>  provided the ideological justifications for taking action again

25、st what were perceived as self-serving bureaucrats (Boston 1996). Beyond theory and ideology, however, the practice of public administration by professional public servants in some jurisdictions, notably Australia, Brita

26、in and New Zealand, offered more than sufficient evidence to political leaders of a public-service culture that gave only grudging acceptance, at best, to the capacity of elected politicians to determine what constitu<

27、;/p><p>  The Canadian case is of interest, I suggest, for several reasons. In comparative perspective, Canada did not approach public management reform with much of an ideological perspective. When the Conserv

28、atives defeated the centrist Liberals in 1984, neither the new prime minister, Brian Mulroney, nor his leading ministers were hardcore neo-conservatives in the Ronald Reagan or Margaret Thatcher mold. At that time, and u

29、ntil the end of the Conservative government in 1993, the party was essentially a</p><p>  By comparison to developments elsewhere, Canadian ministers were less inclined to worry about the professional public

30、 service being unresponsive to their political direction. Nonetheless, the Mulroney regime saw an expansion in the number, roles and influence of ‘political staff’ appointed to ministers’ offices, most notably in the Pri

31、me Minister’s Office (PMO). These staff, who have grown continuously in number over the past four decades, are not public servants, although they are employed on t</p><p>  For all these reasons, the Canadia

32、n government did not go as far down the NPM road as its three major Westminster counterparts (Australia, Britain and New Zealand) in terms of such matters as ‘a(chǎn)gencification,’ devolution, term contracts for executives, e

33、xternal recruitment, or contracting-out. And, the reforms that did occur did not fundamentally transform the traditional administrative architecture. Throughout, there was retained, and even further developed:</p>

34、<p>  ? an integrated public service, with the most senior levels drawn from the career public service and managed and deployed as a corporate executive resource;</p><p>  ? departmental organizations,

35、 structured hierarchically with the minister as political executive and combining public policy and operational/service delivery responsibilities; and,</p><p>  ? public administrative structures for address

36、ing both corporate or governmentwide concerns and horizontal policy and service delivery issues.</p><p>  These features were seen as strengths of the Canadian approach (Bourgon 1998; Lindquist 2006; Dunn 20

37、02).</p><p>  At the same time, reforms were initiated to improve public management that followed the principal NPM script: some measure of devolution of management authority from central management agencies

38、 to the senior public-service executives of line departments for (a) achieving greater economy and efficiency in the use of public resources, (b) improving service delivery, and (c) enhancing collaboration across departm

39、ents to address those wicked ‘horizontal’ problems that defy government’s organizationa</p><p>  Further, in addressing one major challenge that was critical in the first years of NPM, namely, the fiscal cri

40、sis of the state in the latter part of the 20th century, the record of Canada was at first dismal and then dramatically successful. While the Conservative government, in power from 1984-93, was unable to wrestle annual d

41、eficits to the ground, a major program-budget review initiated following the Liberal Party victory in 1993 resulted, in surprisingly short order, in annual multi-billion </p><p>  By the first decade of the

42、21st century, moreover, Canada also came to be ranked first both in E-Government and in Service Delivery on one major international scorecard. On this front, the fact that the public service has been able to operate esse

43、ntially on its own has helped spur progress. The Canadian emphasis on citizen-centred service drew inspiration from the NPM focus on ‘customers’ but, at the same time, paid serious attention to the priorities of citizens

44、 as defined by citizens – the out</p><p>  Finally, and clearly on a much less positive note, a good deal of attention has been required in Canada over the past decade to codes of ethics, public service valu

45、es, transparency, comptrollership, and public accountability – thanks in large part to a series of alleged and real political-administrative scandals! Not surprisingly, this is where NPG and its effects on the quality of

46、 government can be witnessed in spades.</p><p><b>  (文章有節(jié)選)</b></p><p>  新公共化管理與政府質(zhì)量:</p><p>  符合加拿大的新的政治治理</p><p><b>  彼得奧克</b></p><

47、p><b>  達(dá)爾豪西大學(xué)</b></p><p><b>  哈利法克斯,加拿大</b></p><p>  peter.aucoin@dal.ca</p><p>  在會議上發(fā)表“新公共管理與政府質(zhì)量”</p><p>  SOG和政府機(jī)構(gòu)的質(zhì)量,</p><p&g

48、t;<b>  哥德堡大學(xué)</b></p><p><b>  瑞典</b></p><p>  2008年11月13日至15日</p><p>  新公共管理(NPM)和良好的管理之間的張力,包括長期以來一直承擔(dān)那些倡導(dǎo)結(jié)構(gòu)和做法和把帶來關(guān)于新公共管理作為善政的原則和傳統(tǒng)的公共規(guī)范作為基礎(chǔ)的良好的公共行政(薩瓦1994年

49、)。這種關(guān)注并沒有減弱(薩瓦2008年)。</p><p>  由于這種動態(tài)在過去三十多年持續(xù)的發(fā)展,然而,它不僅對傳統(tǒng)的結(jié)構(gòu),實(shí)踐和專業(yè)的價(jià)值,非黨派的公共服務(wù),而且對哪些屬于NPM的已經(jīng)取得了一些改革的公共行政的發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了重大的挑戰(zhàn)。這個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)就是我所說的新的政治治理(NPG)。這是NPG,新的政治治理,而非NPM,新的公共管理。我認(rèn)為,這對好的管理構(gòu)成了威脅,包括良好的公共管理和那些有素質(zhì)的政府(QoG),類

50、似于羅斯坦和特奧雷下的定義(2008年)。這對政府的支持者來說是一個(gè)程度的威脅;有時(shí)候是公開的,然而大多數(shù)時(shí)候,則主要是隱蔽的。他們設(shè)法利用和覆蓋公共的服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)——政府的一個(gè)公正的機(jī)構(gòu),從而為更好的保護(hù)他們的黨派的利益(2007年,麥克德莫特2008年a,2008年b)。像以上那樣做,這些州長搞了許多政治化的公共服務(wù)和公共事務(wù)管理,這些政治化地公共服務(wù)和公共事務(wù)管理構(gòu)成了那些不僅僅能削弱好的政府管理的政治腐敗形式。我認(rèn)為,NPM不是一個(gè)

51、政治的原因,而是一個(gè)干預(yù)因素,這個(gè)干預(yù)因素只要NPM形式,在最后三十年中的其他改革中,都有過揭露這些政治腐敗,而這些公開的揭露,都使得它更容易受到公共服務(wù)方式上的政治行政和政治壓力的影響。</p><p>  我首先通過查找加拿大的情況來檢查這一現(xiàn)象,但是同時(shí)也應(yīng)用了一定數(shù)量的威斯敏斯特的數(shù)據(jù)。我認(rèn)為這個(gè)現(xiàn)象是一個(gè)比較國際性的影響最大的,如果不是,也是西方國家影響最大最具代表性的現(xiàn)象。下文概述的壓力幾乎在世界各地

52、都是一樣的。世界不同的地方也會產(chǎn)生一些不同的反應(yīng),因?yàn)檎晤I(lǐng)導(dǎo)體制和政治系統(tǒng)之間存在著差異,甚至在西方的體系中也會有所不同。這種現(xiàn)象也必須視為在特定時(shí)間背景下,給予了在第一個(gè)例子中導(dǎo)致NPM作為一個(gè)新的政府焦點(diǎn)的壓力的產(chǎn)生,和建立現(xiàn)在的NPG,作為一個(gè)鄭智化的做法的具有重要影響的公共管理,以及特別是公正性,表現(xiàn)和問責(zé)制的壓力的產(chǎn)生。</p><p>  加拿大背景下的新公共管理</p><p&

53、gt;  20世紀(jì)八十年代初以來,NPM在不同司法管轄區(qū)已經(jīng)采取幾種不同的形式。采用私營部門的管理做法被視為只有一個(gè)部分的采用,即使只有很小的一個(gè)部分,但是這樣的政治經(jīng)濟(jì)運(yùn)動,要求政府和公共企業(yè)進(jìn)行私有化改造,提供私有化服務(wù),對民營企業(yè)進(jìn)行廣泛的放松的管制,并且明顯減少公共開支的“回滾狀態(tài)“,它一開始就很突出。(胡德1991年)。通過一些記述可以發(fā)現(xiàn),幾乎所有事情在過去四分之一個(gè)世紀(jì)的一切的改變都是由于NPM引起的。在幾乎所有的司法管轄

54、權(quán)里面,NPM,作為公共管理改革,它至少是原先關(guān)于實(shí)現(xiàn)公共資源管理的政府的業(yè)務(wù)和提供公共服務(wù)的更大的經(jīng)濟(jì)和效率的服務(wù)(伯特利1990年)。焦點(diǎn),簡短的來說,就是兩個(gè)字”管理“。實(shí)現(xiàn)更加經(jīng)濟(jì)的公共資源的使用正處于最前沿的關(guān)注,考慮到所有政府在二十世紀(jì)七十年代的財(cái)政和預(yù)算狀況,管理效率不甘落后,對各地的公共服務(wù)的管理的低下質(zhì)量進(jìn)行了假設(shè)。</p><p>  到了世紀(jì)之交,NPM,作為在這個(gè)有限的意義上的改善政府管理

55、很好的嵌入了幾乎所有的政府,至少作為規(guī)范(盡管它并不總是在到處都被認(rèn)為是NPM:新公共管理)。這意味著增加了管理的權(quán)利,自由裁量的權(quán)利和靈活性:</p><p>  公共資源的管理(財(cái)政和人力);</p><p>  公共服務(wù)提供系統(tǒng)的管理:</p><p>  與其他公共部門機(jī)構(gòu)的合作以及與多組織多部門的問題的協(xié)調(diào)。</p><p>  這

56、樣增加了的管理權(quán),靈活性和自由裁量權(quán)在某些地區(qū),特別是英國和新西蘭增加了組織分化,增殖成多個(gè)部門和機(jī)構(gòu)證明確實(shí)縮小了任務(wù),任務(wù)的目的單一化使效率提高了。然而,并非主要集中在所有的司法改革上面,包括加拿大和澳大利亞這些改變的地區(qū),如果不是在邊緣,顯然增強(qiáng)管理的權(quán)利和責(zé)任是次要的(伯特利和塔伯特2004年)NPM的主要的創(chuàng)新迅速的導(dǎo)致了關(guān)注,尤其在那些上述發(fā)展最先進(jìn)的地區(qū),也倒置了公眾服務(wù)的連貫性和企業(yè)能力的喪失。一方面,歸屬感削弱和承諾公

57、共服務(wù)精神,職業(yè)道德和價(jià)值,另一方面,對這些問題的反應(yīng)也會撤退、逆轉(zhuǎn)、并重新系統(tǒng)平衡的問題。(哈利根2006年)。然而,任何地方,都有排斥NPM的,不管是在理論還是實(shí)踐上面,他們把這作為對傳統(tǒng)公共行政的一種回報(bào),即使出現(xiàn)的一些言論和行動造成了緊張的局勢(格雷戈里2006年)。公共管理的改善至少在一些NPM方面的改善是顯而易見的,即使這些改善,那些NPM的支持者稱謙虛。</p><p>  在新公共管理成為一個(gè)公共

58、管理變革的重要力量的同時(shí),然而,它伴隨著認(rèn)為政治管理人員主張更大的政治控制和管理權(quán)限的力量的產(chǎn)生,這不僅體現(xiàn)在公共政策的制定上,也在公共管理服務(wù)的管理上。因此,從一開始,至少在美英系統(tǒng)里面,有一個(gè)政治高管同時(shí)在左翼黨派和右翼政治黨派兩邊周旋的一個(gè)根本的悖論,要求他們對于公共服務(wù)的官僚機(jī)構(gòu)的優(yōu)勢地位,并且同時(shí)把更大的管理權(quán)限下放給他們(奧克1990年)。</p><p>  在許多政治高管對于稱為“人民公仆”的政治

59、權(quán)威的不滿和這些民選官員的政策議程充滿活力的動力。公眾的選擇和委托代理理論,為打擊為自己牟利的官僚提供了行動的思想理由(波士頓1996年)。除了思想和理論,然而,專業(yè)公務(wù)員在一些司法管轄區(qū)做的公共管理的實(shí)踐,尤其是在澳大利亞,英國和新西蘭,提供了比對政治領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的公共管理服務(wù)文化更充分的依據(jù),這充其量給民選的政治家確定了構(gòu)成在公共政策和管理中的“公共利益”。</p><p>  加拿大的情況是比較有意思的,我認(rèn)為,

60、有以下幾個(gè)原因。在比較的角度看,加拿大沒有辦法在意識形態(tài)的角度上面進(jìn)行更多的公共管理的改革。當(dāng)保守黨在1984年擊敗中間自由黨,新的總理——布萊恩馬爾羅尼,和他領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的部長們都沒有像新的硬派羅納德里根和馬格里撒切爾那樣的保守的樣子。在那個(gè)時(shí)期,直到保守黨執(zhí)政到1993年年底,保守黨基本上是一個(gè)加拿大的搞“經(jīng)濟(jì)”的中間派政黨。在有關(guān)開展新自由主義的重要方面,尤其是在經(jīng)濟(jì)寬松政策的保護(hù)傘的條件下,同時(shí)和美國的自由貿(mào)易協(xié)定制定下來,沒有重要的帶

61、有政治動機(jī)的行政改革的產(chǎn)生。實(shí)用主義占了上風(fēng)(高巖2004年)。因此,在此期間發(fā)起的改革基本上是要求同步其他地方的發(fā)展步伐專業(yè)公共服務(wù)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的事業(yè)。這些改革所受影響的范圍和深度,然而,部長希望維持在政府的積極介入的程度。(奧克1995年)</p><p>  通過比較其他地方的發(fā)展的情況,加拿大的部長們不太愿意顧慮專業(yè)的公共服務(wù)影響他們的政治方向。然而,馬爾羅尼政權(quán)看到了數(shù)量上的擴(kuò)大,指向政府工作人員尤其是總理辦

62、公室(POM)的政治指責(zé)的增多。在過去的四十多年里不斷的增加的上述工作人員,他們不是公職人員,盡管他們是對公眾薪金聘用的。有別于部長任命的獨(dú)立的公務(wù)員,政治工作人員的任命和解雇是由部長決定的,當(dāng)然,他們并沒有超越其部長的任期。而且,在正式憲法原則里面,他們沒有獨(dú)立的權(quán)利,而是直接為公共服務(wù)。而且,在加拿大的傳統(tǒng)中,他們幾乎完全由黨派政治圈的人任命,而且他們是很少有任何公共服務(wù)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)的人。</p><p>  由于

63、所有這些原因,加拿大政府并沒有走三大西方盟友國家走的新公共管理(NPM)的道路(澳大利亞,英國和新西蘭)取而代之的是這樣的“代理機(jī)構(gòu)”,權(quán)力下放,行政人員的長期合同,外部聘用,或合約形式外的外判工作。而且,確實(shí)發(fā)生的改革沒有從更笨長轉(zhuǎn)變傳統(tǒng)的行政架構(gòu)。自始至終,沒有被保留下來,甚至是進(jìn)一步的發(fā)展:</p><p>  集成的公共服務(wù),與來自最高層的職業(yè)公共服務(wù)和管理作為企業(yè)的行政資源的調(diào)配。</p>

64、<p>  部門組織,結(jié)構(gòu)和層次,部長作為政治行政和公共政策還有業(yè)務(wù)/提供服務(wù)的責(zé)任的相關(guān)方</p><p>  公共管理結(jié)構(gòu)解決了企業(yè)或政府范圍的關(guān)注和水平的政策和服務(wù)提供的問題。</p><p>  這些特征被認(rèn)為是加拿大的辦法(博根1998年,林德基斯特2006年,鄧恩2002年)。</p><p>  與此同時(shí),改革是為改善緊隨主要的新公共管理的

65、公共管理的依據(jù):一些從中央機(jī)關(guān)的管理機(jī)構(gòu)的行政部門高級公職服務(wù)人員的一些權(quán)利下放(一)實(shí)現(xiàn)了更大的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和公共資源使用的更大的效率,(二)改善服務(wù),(三)各部門加強(qiáng)合作,解決了這些無視政府組織的行為(巴克維斯和朱麗特2004年)。</p><p>  此外,一個(gè)重大的挑戰(zhàn)是解決在新公共管理的關(guān)鍵的頭幾年,國家在二十世紀(jì)后期的財(cái)政危機(jī),加拿大的數(shù)據(jù)是令人沮喪的,然而后來卻是第一個(gè)顯著成功的。雖然保守黨政府從198

66、4年至1993年期間執(zhí)政,有無法衡量年度赤字的水平,一個(gè)主要的方案預(yù)算審查是在1993年自由黨大選獲勝之后獲得通過的,并且在很短一段時(shí)間內(nèi)就建立起了秩序,每年有數(shù)十億美元的預(yù)算盈余,是近年來一直是八國集團(tuán)(G8)最佳的記錄(一組不包括已經(jīng)有一個(gè)相似預(yù)算盈余經(jīng)驗(yàn)的澳大利亞)。在這方面,政治意愿和紀(jì)律是一個(gè)決定性的力量,而不是意識形態(tài)。</p><p>  到了二十一世紀(jì)的第一個(gè)十年,此外,加拿大也開始名列電子政務(wù)和

67、提供服務(wù)的主要國際統(tǒng)計(jì)的第一名。在這方面,事實(shí)上,公眾服務(wù)已基本上能在其運(yùn)作上幫助國家促進(jìn)貿(mào)易談判進(jìn)程。加拿大的重點(diǎn)在對公民為中心的服務(wù)上吸引了來自新公共管理(NPM)的“顧客”——運(yùn)用NPM的國家的注意。但是同時(shí),花費(fèi)在重視公民的利益為優(yōu)先考慮的事項(xiàng)上利用多種渠道來服務(wù)是一個(gè)綜合服務(wù)的結(jié)構(gòu)和進(jìn)程的重大的進(jìn)步(弗拉米安,安科和科納汗2007年)。加拿大是提供服務(wù)的測量和改善該系統(tǒng)為基礎(chǔ)業(yè)績這樣的做法,然后不斷改善該系統(tǒng)以適應(yīng)西方其他地區(qū)

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