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簡(jiǎn)介：THEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSKARLGEORGH?YERTECHNOLOGY,DESIGNRECEIVEDINREVISEDFORM1NOVEMBER2007ACCEPTED25NOVEMBER2007ABSTRACTTHEARTICLEDESCRIBESANDPRESENTSACRITICALANALYSISOFTHELONGHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSANDPROPULSIONTECHNOLOGIES,PARTICULARLYINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONSCASESAREELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSTHETERM‘‘CRITICALANALYSIS’’REFERSTOTHEANALYSISOFTHEVARIOUSALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIESINRELATIONTOTHEIRSOCIETALCONTEXTSINPARTICULAR,THESEARETHEVARYINGCONTEXTSOFENERGYSECURITY,ENERGYPOLICY,ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS,SUSTAINABILITY,ANDALSOTHELATERMOREEXPLICITCLIMATECHANGECONTEXTTHISAPPROACHGIVESSOMEKNOWLEDGEWITHRELEVANCETOTHECURRENTDISCUSSIONSONIMPLEMENTATIONISSUESTHEWORKISFIRSTOFALLFOUNDEDONTHEKNOWLEDGEFIELDOF‘‘SOCIALSTUDIESOFTECHNOLOGICALSYSTEMS’’?2007ELSEVIERLTDALLRIGHTSRESERVEDKEYWORDSALTERNATIVEFUELSHISTORYELECTRICCARSHYBRIDCARS1ELECTRICCARSDTHEEARLYINNOVATORSTHEHISTORYOFELECTRICCARSISCLOSELYRELATEDTOTHEHISTORYOFBATTERIESWAKEFIELD,1994SPERLING,1995WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THENAMESOFALLTHEEARLYINNOVATORSARESTILLUSEDTODAYIN1800,THEITALIANALESSANDROVOLTADEMONSTRATEDTHATELECTRICENERGYCOULDBESTOREDCHEMICALLYHEHIMSELFWASINSPIREDBYSOMEEARLIEREXPERIMENTSMADEBYHISCOUNTRYMANLUIGIGALVANIGALVANIWASAPROFESSORINMEDICINE,WHOCARRIEDOUTSOMERATHERCRUELEXPERIMENTSINWHICHHEOBSERVEDTHETWITCHINGOFAFROG’SLEGWHENSUBJECTINGITTOWHATWOULDLATERBEKNOWNASELECTRICCURRENTIN1821,THEBRITONMICHAELFARRADAYDEMONSTRATEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFTHEELECTRICMOTORDORGENERATORDWHILEAPPLYINGVOLTA’SCHEMICALPILEASACOMPONENTOFHISEXPERIMENTSLATER,IN1831,FARRADAYSHOWEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTIONWITHTHECLOSERELATIONBETWEENELECTRICCURRENTSANDMAGNETISM,THEREBYLAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORTHEELECTRICMOTORSANDGENERATORSEXPLICITLYREQUIREDFORELECTRICCARSTHEFIRSTEXPERIMENTALLIGHTWEIGHTELECTRICVEHICLESTHUSAPPEAREDBOTHINTHEUSA,UKANDTHENETHERLANDSINTHEMID1830SEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTSINELECTROCHEMISTRYTOOKPLACEINTHESEEARLYYEARSIN1859,THEBELGIANGASTONPLANTE′MADEAPATHBREAKINGDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEFIRSTLEADACIDBATTERYCELLTHISIMPLIEDTHEINVENTIONOFTHELEADACIDBATTERYSTILLUSEDASASTARTERBATTERYINALLINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINEICECARSANDALSOASAPOWERBATTERYINMOSTELECTRICCARSOTHERCHEMICALCELLBATTERIESWEREFURTHERDEVELOPEDINTHESEYEARS,FORINSTANCETHEIRONEZINCBATTERYANDONLYAFEWYEARSLATER,IN1861,ANOTHERITALIAN,ANTONIOPACINOTTI,INVENTEDTHE‘‘RING’’DIRECTCURRENTMOTORTHEFIRSTELECTRICVEHICLEDATRICYCLEDAPPLYINGTHEPLANTE′LEADBATTERYASAPOWERSOURCEWASDEMONSTRATEDINFRANCEBYAMRTROUVE′IN1881INTHESEINETHESAMEYEAR,HEACTUALLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTELECTRICBOATWITHASIMILARPOWERSOURCEDURINGTHESEYEARS,THEEARLY1880S,OTHERSIMILARELECTRICTRICYCLESWITHLEADBATTERIESWEREALSODEMONSTRATEDINTHEUSAANDUKINTHISCONTEXT,ITISWORTHREMEMBERINGTHATTHEGERMANBENZDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTICEVEHICLEIN1885LATERONTHOMASEDISONJOINEDFORCES,ASHESAWGREATOPPORTUNITIESFORELECTRICCARSHEMADESUBSTANTIALEFFORTSTODEVELOPMOREEFFICIENTBATTERIESIN1901,HECAMEUPWITHTHENICKELEIRONBATTERY,WHICHWASVERYMUCHINFOCUSWHENTELT4722453051FAXT4722453005EMAILADDRESSKARLGEORGHOYERHIONO09571787/SEEFRONTMATTER?2007ELSEVIERLTDALLRIGHTSRESERVEDDOI101016/JJUP200711001AVAILABLEONLINEATWWWSCIENCEDIRECTCOMUTILITIESPOLICY16200863E71WWWELSEVIERCOM/LOCATE/JUP3WARTIMECONDITIONSATTHISTIME,HOWEVER,THEELECTRICVEHICLESSTILLCONSTITUTEDATHRIVINGINDUSTRYTHEWARINEUROPEONLYINCREASEDTHEPRODUCTIONANDDEVELOPMENTPOTENTIALSINTHEUSAASAMAJORWORLDEXPORTER,ANDINENGLAND,GERMANYANDFRANCEDUETOTHEFACTTHATMOSTGASOLINEVEHICLESWEREREQUISITIONEDTHEWAREFFORTWHOLEMUNICIPALFLEETSOFELECTRICVEHICLESWEREUSEDFORSTREETCLEANINGANDGARBAGECOLLECTION,ANDMANYMERCHANTSHADTHEIROWNPRIVATEFLEETSOFELECTRICVANSFORRETAILANDGOODSDELIVERIESENGLANDFORINSTANCEHADMORETHAN1000ELECTRICTRUCKSINTHESEYEARSTHEINFRASTRUCTUREWASALSODEVELOPEDBIRMINGHAMDISTRICTISKNOWNTOHAVEHADSEVENCHARGINGSTATIONSONLYINTHECITYAREA,ANDMORETHANTWENTYINTHESURROUNDINGDISTRICTBOTHINTHEUSAANDEUROPEINTHISPERIOD,LARGEEFFORTSWEREPUTINTOTHEENHANCEMENTOFRECHARGINGINFRASTRUCTURESANDPOTENTIALSTWOCONDITIONSWERECRUCIALTOTHISWARPEAKINPRODUCTIONANDUSEFIRSTLY,THEGASOLINESHORTAGEANDTHEREQUISITIONINGOFICEVEHICLESTOTAKEPARTINTHEWAREFFORTSECONDLY,ANEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTOFNEWELECTRICPOWERSTATIONSTOOKPLACEDMOSTLYLARGECOALFIREDPOWERSTATIONSASKNOWNFROMENGLANDANDGERMANY,BUTALSOLARGEHYDROPOWERSTATIONSINITALY,NORWAYANDSWEDENELECTRICITYSEEMEDTOBECOMEANABUNDANTRESOURCE,AVAILABLENOTONLYFORINDUSTRIALPURPOSESBUTFORTRANSPORTATIONASWELLBYTHEENDOFTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,THEUSAALONEHADANESTIMATED50,000ELECTRICVEHICLESALTOGETHER,ANDTHEYWEREEXPORTINGLARGENUMBERSTOWARTORNEUROPE,MOSTLYCARSFORPRIVATEPASSENGERTRANSPORTATANAUTOMOBILESHOWINNEWYORKIN1918,CARSFROMFOURMAJORELECTRICVEHICLECOMPANIESWEREDEMONSTRATEDANUMBEROFBUYERSFROMMANYEUROPEANCOUNTRIESINCLUDINGNORWAYANDSWEDEN,BUTALSOJAPANANDSOUTHAMERICA,WERETHERETOPLACELARGEORDERSANORWEGIANFORINSTANCEIMMEDIATELYPLACEDANORDERFORONEHUNDREDCARS,READYTOBUYANOTHERFORTYWITHINAFORTNIGHTSEVERALELECTRICTAXISWERESOLDTOJAPANWAKEFIELD,1994WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005EXPECTATIONSWEREHIGH,BUTTHEYWOULDSOONFADETHEELECTRICVEHICL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簡(jiǎn)介：CORRESPONDINGAUTHORJOSKARPGGDAPLAUTOMATICROADTRAFFICSAFETYMANAGEMENTSYSTEMINURBANAREASJACEKOSKARBSKI11GDANSKUNIVERSITYOFTECHNOLOGY,FACULTYOFCIVILANDENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING,GDANSK,POLANDABSTRACTTRAFFICINCIDENTSANDACCIDENTSCONTRIBUTETODECREASINGLEVELSOFTRANSPORTSYSTEMRELIABILITYANDSAFETYTRAFFICMANAGEMENTANDEMERGENCYSYSTEMSONTHEROAD,USING,AMONGOTHERS,AUTOMATICDETECTION,VIDEOSURVEILLANCE,COMMUNICATIONTECHNOLOGIESANDINSTITUTIONALSOLUTIONSIMPROVETHEORGANIZATIONOFTHEWORKOFVARIOUSDEPARTMENTSINVOLVEDINTRAFFICANDSAFETYMANAGEMENTAUTOMATIONOFINCIDENTMANAGEMENTHELPSTOREDUCETHETIMEOFARESCUEOPERATIONASWELLASOFTHENORMALIZATIONOFTHEFLOWOFTRAFFICAFTERCOMPLETIONOFARESCUEOPERATION,WHICHALSOAFFECTSTHEREDUCTIONOFTHERISKOFSECONDARYACCIDENTSANDCONTRIBUTESTOREDUCINGTHEIRSEVERITYTHEPAPERPRESENTSTHEPOSSIBILITYOFINCLUDINGCITYTRAFFICDEPARTMENTSINTHEPROCESSOFINCIDENTMANAGEMENTTHERESULTSOFRESEARCHONTHEAUTOMATICINCIDENTDETECTIONINCITIESAREALSOPRESENTED1INTRODUCTIONTRANSPORTSYSTEMSAREAKEYELEMENTINMEETINGBASICSOCIALNEEDSRELATEDTOPOPULATIONMOBILITYANDSUPPLIESTHEYFACILITATETHEDEVELOPMENTOFECONOMICACTIVITYANDCONTRIBUTETOUPGRADINGTHEQUALITYOFLIFESOCIETYEXPECTSAHIGHLEVELOFRELIABILITYOFTRANSPORTWHILETRAVELINGTOWORK,SCHOOLSANDFORRECREATIONTODAY,HOWEVER,ITISALREADYKNOWNTHATCERTAINCHANGESINTRANSPORTMANAGEMENTARENECESSARYTOTACKLESUCHURGENTPROBLEMSASTRAFFICCONGESTION,ENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTION,TRAFFICSAFETYORSOCIALRISKS,ATTHESAMETIMEENSURINGSUFFICIENTMOBILITYINTHEFUTURETHEDEVELOPMENTOFINTELLIGENTTRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMSITSASSUPPLEMENTARYTOLONGTERMMEASURESINTRANSPORTPOLICYOFFERHOPEFORATLEASTAPARTIALSOLUTIONTOTHEPROBLEMSENCOUNTERED,INCLUDINGINPARTICULARTHEPROBLEMOFTRANSPORTSAFETYCONSEQUENTLY,MANYCITIESINDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESINTRODUCEINTELLIGENTSYSTEMSOFTRANSPORTATIONMANAGEMENTTHEINTENSIFIEDIMPLEMENTATIONOFITSSERVICESHASALSOBEENOBSERVEDINPOLISHTOWNSANDONRURALROADSFORSEVERALYEARSNOWTRAFFICSERVICESARENOTTHESOLEBENEFICIARIESOFSUCHITSSERVICESNEWSOFTWAREANDHARDWARESOLUTIONSAREALSOAPPLIEDBYINSTITUTIONSPARTICIPATINGINRESCUEOPERATIONSMEDICALSERVICES,FIREBRIGADESANDPREVENTIVEACTIONSEGTHOSERELATEDTOSPEEDCONTROLSYSTEMSUSEDBYROADAUTHORITIESASWELLASEMERGENCYANDPREVENTIVESERVICESPROVIDEDETAILEDDATAONTRAFFICINCIDENTSANDOTHERBIGDATAWHICHCANBEUSEDATPLANNINGANDOPERATIONALLEVELSOFSECURITYMANAGEMENTTHESEDATAAREALSOAPOTENTIALRESOURCETHATCOULDBETHEBASISFORRESEARCHAIMEDATIMPROVINGANDDEVELOPINGNEWMETHODSANDMEANSTOUPGRADETRAFFICSAFETYCHANGESTAKINGPLACETHROUGHTECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENT,THATMANIFESTTHEMSELVESINANEVERWIDERUSEOFAUTOMATIONINTRANSPORTATIONPROCESSES,JUSTIFYTHEREVISIONOFTHECURRENTAPPROACHTOTRAFFICSAFETYDOI101051/,030072017712201MATECWEBOFCONFERENCESMATECCONF/20122GAMBIT20163007?THEAUTHORS,PUBLISHEDBYEDPSCIENCESTHISISANOPENACCESSARTICLEDISTRIBUTEDUNDERTHETERMSOFTHECREATIVECOMMONSATTRIBUTIONLICENSE40HTTP//CREATIVECOMMONSORG/LICENSES/BY/40/TRAFFICSAFETYSUCHDATACANBECOLLECTED,FORINSTANCE,INITSREGIONALLABORATORIESTHESTRUCTURESOFTHESEDATABASESANDTHEIRLINKAGESSHOULDBEDEVELOPEDITISALSOIMPORTANTTOENSUREUNIVERSALACCESSTODATATHEACTIVITIESOFLOCALGOVERNMENTSWORKINGONSOLUTIONSINTHEFIELDOF“SMARTCITY“CANBEHELPFULINTHISRESPECTTHERESULTOFTHESEACTIVITIESSHOULDBETHEINTRODUCTIONOFTRAFFICSAFETYANDKNOWLEDGETRANSFER22OPERATIONALTRAFFICSAFETYMANAGEMENTTHESYSTEMOFTRANSPORTSUFFERSDISRUPTIONSEVERYDAYTRANSPORTSYSTEMSBECOMELESSRELIABLEWHICHINPARTICULARAFFECTSTHERELIABILITYOFTRAVELTIMEWITHINATRANSPORTNETWORK3WHENUNDESIREDINCIDENTSTAKEPLACETHESEINCLUDEDANGEROUSINCIDENTSACCIDENTSANDCOLLISIONSANDINCIDENTSSUCHASAVEHICLEBECOMINGSTATIONARYDUETOABREAKDOWNORDRIVERINDISPOSITION,OBJECTSONTHEROAD,FAILUREOFPARTSOFROADINFRASTRUCTURE4THISSUGGESTSTHATASYSTEMICSOLUTIONISREQUIREDTOHELPRESTORENORMALTRAFFICCONDITIONSFASTERAFTERTHEACCIDENTSCENEISCLEAREDANDMINIMIZETRAVELERS’TIMELOSTTHEOBJECTIVEISALSOTOREDUCETHERISKOFSECONDARYEVENTSBYKEEPINGMOTORISTSINFORMEDABOUTTHEINCIDENTANDCONTROLLINGSPEEDVIAVARIABLEMESSAGESIGNSANDACCIDENTSEVERITYBYREDUCINGTHETIMEFOREMERGENCYSERVICESTOGETTOTHESCENEANDATTENDTOTHECASUALTIESWITHTHEDEPLOYMENTOFITSSERVICESINPOLANDTHEWORKOFTHESERVICESCANNOWBEINTENSIFIEDANDINTEGRATEDASPARTOFOPERATIONALROADSAFETYMANAGEMENTTHEARCHITECTUREOFTHETRICITY’SINTEGRATEDTRAFFICMANAGEMENTSYSTEMTRISTARPROVIDESFORTHEDELIVERYOFANOPERATIONALROADSAFETYMANAGEMENTSYSTEMASDEPICTEDINFIG1TRAFFICINCIDENTMANAGEMENTTIMISASYSTEMATIC,PLANNEDANDCOORDINATEDUSEOFRESOURCESTOREDUCETHEIMPACTOFINCIDENTS,ANDIMPROVETHESAFETYOFMOTORISTS,CRASHVICTIMSANDINCIDENTRESPONDERSANDTORESTORENORMALTRAFFICCONDITIONSAFTERTHEOCCURRENCEOFANINCIDENTISDETECTEDONTHEROADUSINGITSDETECTIONCAPABILITY,THEMONITORINGANDTRAFFICSURVEILLANCESYSTEMSUPPORTSTHECOLLECTIONOFDATAABOUTTRAFFICPARAMETERS,WEATHERCONDITIONS,TRAVELTIMESONSPECIFICSTREETSECTIONSONCEPROCESSEDTHEYCANBEUSEDBYTRAFFICSAFETYMANAGEMENTSYSTEMMODULESTHEAUTOMATICSUPERVISIONOFDRIVERSBEHAVIORMODULEISDESIGNEDTODETECTROADTRAFFICOFFENCESSUCHASEXCEEDINGMOMENTARYSPEEDANDAVERAGESPEEDONAROADSECTIONANDDRIVINGOVERTHESTOPLINEONAJUNCTIONORPEDESTRIANCROSSINGONAREDLIGHTFORTHEPARTICULARDIRECTIONATPRESENT,THEMODULESCOLLECTOFFENCEST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簡(jiǎn)介：3700英文單詞，英文單詞，20000英文字符，中文英文字符，中文6500字出處出處H?YERKGTHEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSJUTILITIESPOLICY,2008,1626371THEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSKARLGEORGH?YERABSTRACTTHEARTICLEDESCRIBESANDPRESENTSACRITICALANALYSISOFTHELONGHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSANDPROPULSIONTECHNOLOGIES,PARTICULARLYINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONSCASESAREELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSTHETERM‘‘CRITICALANALYSIS”REFERSTOTHEANALYSISOFTHEVARIOUSALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIESINRELATIONTOTHEIRSOCIETALCONTEXTSINPARTICULAR,THESEARETHEVARYINGCONTEXTSOFENERGYSECURITY,ENERGYPOLICY,ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS,SUSTAINABILITY,ANDALSOTHELATERMOREEXPLICITCLIMATECHANGECONTEXTTHISAPPROACHGIVESSOMEKNOWLEDGEWITHRELEVANCETOTHECURRENTDISCUSSIONSONIMPLEMENTATIONISSUESTHEWORKISFIRSTOFALLFOUNDEDONTHEKNOWLEDGEFIELDOF‘‘SOCIALSTUDIESOFTECHNOLOGICALSYSTEMS”KEYWORDSALTERNATIVEFUELSHISTORYELECTRICCARSHYBRIDCARS1ELECTRICCARSTHEEARLYINNOVATORSTHEHISTORYOFELECTRICCARSISCLOSELYRELATEDTOTHEHISTORYOFBATTERIESWAKEFIELD,1994SPERLING,1995WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THENAMESOFALLTHEEARLYINNOVATORSARESTILLUSEDTODAYIN1800,THEITALIANALESSANDROVOLTADEMONSTRATEDTHATELECTRICENERGYCOULDBESTOREDCHEMICALLYHEHIMSELFWASINSPIREDBYSOMEEARLIEREXPERIMENTSMADEBYHISCOUNTRYMANLUIGIGALVANIGALVANIWASAPROFESSORINMEDICINE,WHOCARRIEDOUTSOMERATHERCRUELEXPERIMENTSINWHICHHEOBSERVEDTHETWITCHINGOFAFROG5SLEGWHENSUBJECTINGITTOWHATWOULDLATERBEKNOWNASELECTRICCURRENTIN1821,THEBRITONMICHAELFARRADAYDEMONSTRATEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFTHEELECTRICMOTORORGENERATORWHILEAPPLYINGVOLTA5SCHEMICALPILEASACOMPONENTOFHISEXPERIMENTSLATER,IN1831,FARRADAYSHOWEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTIONWITHTHECLOSERELATIONBETWEENELECTRICCURRENTSANDMAGNETISM,THEREBYLAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORTHEELECTRICMOTORSANDGENERATORSEXPLICITLYREQUIREDFORELECTRICCARSTHEFIRSTEXPERIMENTALLIGHTWEIGHTELECTRICVEHICLESTHUSAPPEAREDBOTHINTHEUSA,UKANDTHENETHERLANDSINTHEMID1830SEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTSINELECTROCHEMISTRYTOOKPLACEINTHESEEARLYYEARSIN1859,THEBELGIANGASTONPLANTEMADEAPATHBREAKINGDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEFIRSTLEADACIDBATTERYCELLTHISIMPLIEDTHEINVENTIONOFTHELEADACIDBATTERYSTILLUSEDASASTARTERBATTERYINALLINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINEICECARSANDALSOASAPOWERBATTERYINMOSTELECTRICCARSOTHERCHEMICALCELLBATTERIESWEREFURTHERDEVELOPEDINTHESEYEARS,FORINSTANCETHEIRONZINCBATTERYANDONLYAFEWYEARSLATER,IN1861,ANOTHERITALIAN,ANTONIOPACINOTTI,INVENTEDTHE“RING”DIRECTCURRENTMOTORTHEFIRSTELECTRICVEHICLEATRICYCLEAPPLYINGTHEPLANTELEADBATTERYASAPOWERSOURCEWASDEMONSTRATEDINFRANCEBYAMRTROUVEIN1881INTHESEINETHESAMEYEAR,HEACTUALLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTELECTRICBOATWITHASIMILARPOWERSOURCEDURINGTHESEYEARS,THEEARLY1880S,OTHERSIMILARELECTRICTRICYCLESWITHLEADBATTERIESWEREALSODEMONSTRATEDINTHEUSAANDUKINTHISCONTEXT,ITISWORTHREMEMBERINGTHATTHEGERMANBENZDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTICEVEHICLEIN1885LATERONTHOMASEDISONJOINEDFORCES,ASHESAWGREATOPPORTUNITIESFORELECTRICCARSHECARSOVERLONGERDISTANCES,NOTABLYINSEVERALEARLYCARRACESWHERETHEYCOMPETEDWITHICEANDSTEAMENGINECARSBOTHFORREACHANDSPEEDRECORDSANOTHERSOMEWHATLATERINVENTIONFORTHESAMEPURPOSEWASAFASTBATTERYSWAPPINGSYSTEM,WITHBATTERIESONROLLERSTHATALLOWEDTHECAROWNERSTOEASILYROLLOUTTHEDISCHARGEDBATTERIESANDROLLINTHENEWCHARGEDONESANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005BESIDESINTENSIVEEFFORTSTODEVELOPNEWBATTERYTYPESANDINVENTIVESYSTEMSFORFASTBATTERYEXCHANGEANDRECHARGING,TWOOTHERTECHNOLOGIESWEREDEVELOPEDAROUND1900WHICHAIMEDATENHANCINGTHEREACHOFTHEELECTRICCARFIRSTLY,THEREWASTHEPRINCIPLEOFREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTHISWASDEMONSTRATEDINPARISIN1887,UTILISINGTHEABILITYOFTHEELECTRICDRIVEMOTORTOACTASAGENERATORCHARGINGTHEBATTERYWHENOVERDRIVENMECHANICALLYBYTHEVEHICLEWHEELSINTHISWAY,DRIVINGDOWNHILLGIVESEXTRAPOWERBACKTOTHEBATTERYTHERECHARGINGLOADSTHEDRIVEMOTORASAGENERATORENOUGHBOTHTOACHIEVETHENECESSARYBRAKINGEFFECTANDTOINCREASETHEENERGYSTOREDINTHEBATTERYEARLYESTIMATESSHOWEDTHATONEWOULDEXPECTINCREASESINCARRANGESUPTO40,JUSTASTHEESTIMATESWOULDBESOMEHUNDREDYEARSLATERSUCHREGENERATIVEBRAKINGBECAMESTANDARDEQUIPMENTINMANYOFTHEMODELSALREADYSOLDINTHEEARLYYEARSOFTHE18THCENTURYWAKEFIELD,1994WESTBROOK,2001THESECONDIMPORTANTTECHNOLOGYDEVELOPEDTOINCREASETHELIMITEDREACHOFTHEBATTERYCARSWASTHEHYBRID,SOMUCHMOREINFOCUSATTHATPOINTTHANAHUNDREDYEARSLATERTHENOTABLECARDEVELOPERFERDINANDPORSCHEWASONEOFTHEFIRSTINVENTORSINTHISFIELDHISGASOLINEELECTRICCARWASSHOWNATTHEPARISEXPOSITIONIN1900THESEEARLYHYBRIDSALSOINCLUDEDREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTECHNOLOGIESSUCHAGASOLINEELECTRICHYBRIDCARWASDEMONSTRATEDASEARLYASTHETHIRDANNUALAUTOMOBILEANDCYCLESHOWINPARISIN1901THEAMERICANELECTRICVEHICLECOINCOLUMBIAANNOUNCEDIN1902INANADVERTISEMENTTHESALEOFITSELECTRICGASOLINEHYBRID,‘‘TOAFFORDTHEMAXIMUMOFSAFETY,RELIABILITY,COMFORTANDLUXURYWRITEFORCATALOGUEOFSEVENTEENDIFFERENTCOLUMBIAMODELS’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THEHYBRIDSWERECLAIMEDTOCOMBINETHEBESTOFTWOTECHNOLOGIESNOISELESSWHENDRIVINGINCITYAREASANDWITHNOLIMITSTOTHEREACHOFTHECAROUTSIDETHECITIESTHEAMERICANJOURNALTHEAUTOMOBILESTATEDINASPECIALISSUEIN1905‘‘ITCERTAINLYSEEMSTHATTHEREISABIGFUTUREBEFORETHEPETROLELECTRICCAR’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005MOSTLYDUETOCOSTPROBLEMS,THEHYBRIDCONCEPTDID,HOWEVER,MOREORLESSDISAPPEARDURINGTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,NEVERTOBELOOKEDSERIOUSLYATAGAINBEFORETHEEARLY1970SWAKEFIELD,19987TOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITYWITHELECTRICDRIVINGBYTHEEARLY1980S,ELECTRICCARSWOULDCOMEINTOFOCUSAGAINULVONAS,1983MADERANDBEVILACQUA,1989WAKEFIELD,1994THEPROBLEMSOFAIRPOLLUTIONINLARGERCITIESWEREONCEAGAINHIGHLIGHTEDANDBYTHEENDOFTHEDECADE,IN1990,CALIFORNIAINTRODUCEDTHEIRFIRSTZEROEMISSIONREGULATIONS,WHICHINPARTICULARSPARKEDNEWINITIATIVESINDEVELOPINGELECTRICVEHICLESDURINGTHE1990SZEROEMISSIONVEHICLESBECAMEANEWTERMAPPLIEDINTHISCONTEXT,FOCUSSHALL,HOWEVER,BEONQUITEANOTHERDISCOURSETHESUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTDISCOURSESINCETHELATE1980S,WEHAVEEXPERIENCEDANEWANDINTENSIFIEDFOCUSONTHENEEDTODEVELOPALTERNATIVEENERGYRESOURCESANDTECHNOLOGIESINTHETRANSPORTSECTORNOTONLYHASTHISFOCUSBECOMEANINTEGRALPARTOFTHECURRENTENVIRONMENTALANDALTERNATIVEENERGYDISCOURSE,ITHASEVENCOMETODOMINATETHISDISCOURSETHETERMISNOLONGERSOFTENERGYPATHS,BUTSUSTAINABLEENERGYSYSTEMS,WITHENERGYFORMOBILITYPURPOSESASACRUCIALPARTISSUESRELATEDTODEVELOPMENTOFALTERNATIVEENERGYINTHETRANSPORTSECTORHAVETHUSBEENINTEGRATEDINTOTHEMUCHWIDERDISCOURSEONSUSTAINABLE

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簡(jiǎn)介：3700英文單詞，英文單詞，20000英文字符，中文英文字符，中文6500字出處出處H?YERKGTHEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSJUTILITIESPOLICY,2008,1626371THEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSKARLGEORGH?YERABSTRACTTHEARTICLEDESCRIBESANDPRESENTSACRITICALANALYSISOFTHELONGHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSANDPROPULSIONTECHNOLOGIES,PARTICULARLYINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONSCASESAREELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSTHETERM‘‘CRITICALANALYSIS”REFERSTOTHEANALYSISOFTHEVARIOUSALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIESINRELATIONTOTHEIRSOCIETALCONTEXTSINPARTICULAR,THESEARETHEVARYINGCONTEXTSOFENERGYSECURITY,ENERGYPOLICY,ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS,SUSTAINABILITY,ANDALSOTHELATERMOREEXPLICITCLIMATECHANGECONTEXTTHISAPPROACHGIVESSOMEKNOWLEDGEWITHRELEVANCETOTHECURRENTDISCUSSIONSONIMPLEMENTATIONISSUESTHEWORKISFIRSTOFALLFOUNDEDONTHEKNOWLEDGEFIELDOF‘‘SOCIALSTUDIESOFTECHNOLOGICALSYSTEMS”KEYWORDSALTERNATIVEFUELSHISTORYELECTRICCARSHYBRIDCARS1ELECTRICCARSTHEEARLYINNOVATORSTHEHISTORYOFELECTRICCARSISCLOSELYRELATEDTOTHEHISTORYOFBATTERIESWAKEFIELD,1994SPERLING,1995WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THENAMESOFALLTHEEARLYINNOVATORSARESTILLUSEDTODAYIN1800,THEITALIANALESSANDROVOLTADEMONSTRATEDTHATELECTRICENERGYCOULDBESTOREDCHEMICALLYHEHIMSELFWASINSPIREDBYSOMEEARLIEREXPERIMENTSMADEBYHISCOUNTRYMANLUIGIGALVANIGALVANIWASAPROFESSORINMEDICINE,WHOCARRIEDOUTSOMERATHERCRUELEXPERIMENTSINWHICHHEOBSERVEDTHETWITCHINGOFAFROG5SLEGWHENSUBJECTINGITTOWHATWOULDLATERBEKNOWNASELECTRICCURRENTIN1821,THEBRITONMICHAELFARRADAYDEMONSTRATEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFTHEELECTRICMOTORORGENERATORWHILEAPPLYINGVOLTA5SCHEMICALPILEASACOMPONENTOFHISEXPERIMENTSLATER,IN1831,FARRADAYSHOWEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTIONWITHTHECLOSERELATIONBETWEENELECTRICCURRENTSANDMAGNETISM,THEREBYLAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORTHEELECTRICMOTORSANDGENERATORSEXPLICITLYREQUIREDFORELECTRICCARSTHEFIRSTEXPERIMENTALLIGHTWEIGHTELECTRICVEHICLESTHUSAPPEAREDBOTHINTHEUSA,UKANDTHENETHERLANDSINTHEMID1830SEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTSINELECTROCHEMISTRYTOOKPLACEINTHESEEARLYYEARSIN1859,THEBELGIANGASTONPLANTEMADEAPATHBREAKINGDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEFIRSTLEADACIDBATTERYCELLTHISIMPLIEDTHEINVENTIONOFTHELEADACIDBATTERYSTILLUSEDASASTARTERBATTERYINALLINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINEICECARSANDALSOASAPOWERBATTERYINMOSTELECTRICCARSOTHERCHEMICALCELLBATTERIESWEREFURTHERDEVELOPEDINTHESEYEARS,FORINSTANCETHEIRONZINCBATTERYANDONLYAFEWYEARSLATER,IN1861,ANOTHERITALIAN,ANTONIOPACINOTTI,INVENTEDTHE“RING”DIRECTCURRENTMOTORTHEFIRSTELECTRICVEHICLEATRICYCLEAPPLYINGTHEPLANTELEADBATTERYASAPOWERSOURCEWASDEMONSTRATEDINFRANCEBYAMRTROUVEIN1881INTHESEINETHESAMEYEAR,HEACTUALLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTELECTRICBOATWITHASIMILARPOWERSOURCEDURINGTHESEYEARS,THEEARLY1880S,OTHERSIMILARELECTRICTRICYCLESWITHLEADBATTERIESWEREALSODEMONSTRATEDINTHEUSAANDUKINTHISCONTEXT,ITISWORTHREMEMBERINGTHATTHEGERMANBENZDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTICEVEHICLEIN1885LATERONTHOMASEDISONJOINEDFORCES,ASHESAWGREATOPPORTUNITIESFORELECTRICCARSHECARSOVERLONGERDISTANCES,NOTABLYINSEVERALEARLYCARRACESWHERETHEYCOMPETEDWITHICEANDSTEAMENGINECARSBOTHFORREACHANDSPEEDRECORDSANOTHERSOMEWHATLATERINVENTIONFORTHESAMEPURPOSEWASAFASTBATTERYSWAPPINGSYSTEM,WITHBATTERIESONROLLERSTHATALLOWEDTHECAROWNERSTOEASILYROLLOUTTHEDISCHARGEDBATTERIESANDROLLINTHENEWCHARGEDONESANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005BESIDESINTENSIVEEFFORTSTODEVELOPNEWBATTERYTYPESANDINVENTIVESYSTEMSFORFASTBATTERYEXCHANGEANDRECHARGING,TWOOTHERTECHNOLOGIESWEREDEVELOPEDAROUND1900WHICHAIMEDATENHANCINGTHEREACHOFTHEELECTRICCARFIRSTLY,THEREWASTHEPRINCIPLEOFREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTHISWASDEMONSTRATEDINPARISIN1887,UTILISINGTHEABILITYOFTHEELECTRICDRIVEMOTORTOACTASAGENERATORCHARGINGTHEBATTERYWHENOVERDRIVENMECHANICALLYBYTHEVEHICLEWHEELSINTHISWAY,DRIVINGDOWNHILLGIVESEXTRAPOWERBACKTOTHEBATTERYTHERECHARGINGLOADSTHEDRIVEMOTORASAGENERATORENOUGHBOTHTOACHIEVETHENECESSARYBRAKINGEFFECTANDTOINCREASETHEENERGYSTOREDINTHEBATTERYEARLYESTIMATESSHOWEDTHATONEWOULDEXPECTINCREASESINCARRANGESUPTO40,JUSTASTHEESTIMATESWOULDBESOMEHUNDREDYEARSLATERSUCHREGENERATIVEBRAKINGBECAMESTANDARDEQUIPMENTINMANYOFTHEMODELSALREADYSOLDINTHEEARLYYEARSOFTHE18THCENTURYWAKEFIELD,1994WESTBROOK,2001THESECONDIMPORTANTTECHNOLOGYDEVELOPEDTOINCREASETHELIMITEDREACHOFTHEBATTERYCARSWASTHEHYBRID,SOMUCHMOREINFOCUSATTHATPOINTTHANAHUNDREDYEARSLATERTHENOTABLECARDEVELOPERFERDINANDPORSCHEWASONEOFTHEFIRSTINVENTORSINTHISFIELDHISGASOLINEELECTRICCARWASSHOWNATTHEPARISEXPOSITIONIN1900THESEEARLYHYBRIDSALSOINCLUDEDREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTECHNOLOGIESSUCHAGASOLINEELECTRICHYBRIDCARWASDEMONSTRATEDASEARLYASTHETHIRDANNUALAUTOMOBILEANDCYCLESHOWINPARISIN1901THEAMERICANELECTRICVEHICLECOINCOLUMBIAANNOUNCEDIN1902INANADVERTISEMENTTHESALEOFITSELECTRICGASOLINEHYBRID,‘‘TOAFFORDTHEMAXIMUMOFSAFETY,RELIABILITY,COMFORTANDLUXURYWRITEFORCATALOGUEOFSEVENTEENDIFFERENTCOLUMBIAMODELS’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THEHYBRIDSWERECLAIMEDTOCOMBINETHEBESTOFTWOTECHNOLOGIESNOISELESSWHENDRIVINGINCITYAREASANDWITHNOLIMITSTOTHEREACHOFTHECAROUTSIDETHECITIESTHEAMERICANJOURNALTHEAUTOMOBILESTATEDINASPECIALISSUEIN1905‘‘ITCERTAINLYSEEMSTHATTHEREISABIGFUTUREBEFORETHEPETROLELECTRICCAR’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005MOSTLYDUETOCOSTPROBLEMS,THEHYBRIDCONCEPTDID,HOWEVER,MOREORLESSDISAPPEARDURINGTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,NEVERTOBELOOKEDSERIOUSLYATAGAINBEFORETHEEARLY1970SWAKEFIELD,19987TOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITYWITHELECTRICDRIVINGBYTHEEARLY1980S,ELECTRICCARSWOULDCOMEINTOFOCUSAGAINULVONAS,1983MADERANDBEVILACQUA,1989WAKEFIELD,1994THEPROBLEMSOFAIRPOLLUTIONINLARGERCITIESWEREONCEAGAINHIGHLIGHTEDANDBYTHEENDOFTHEDECADE,IN1990,CALIFORNIAINTRODUCEDTHEIRFIRSTZEROEMISSIONREGULATIONS,WHICHINPARTICULARSPARKEDNEWINITIATIVESINDEVELOPINGELECTRICVEHICLESDURINGTHE1990SZEROEMISSIONVEHICLESBECAMEANEWTERMAPPLIEDINTHISCONTEXT,FOCUSSHALL,HOWEVER,BEONQUITEANOTHERDISCOURSETHESUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTDISCOURSESINCETHELATE1980S,WEHAVEEXPERIENCEDANEWANDINTENSIFIEDFOCUSONTHENEEDTODEVELOPALTERNATIVEENERGYRESOURCESANDTECHNOLOGIESINTHETRANSPORTSECTORNOTONLYHASTHISFOCUSBECOMEANINTEGRALPARTOFTHECURRENTENVIRONMENTALANDALTERNATIVEENERGYDISCOURSE,ITHASEVENCOMETODOMINATETHISDISCOURSETHETERMISNOLONGERSOFTENERGYPATHS,BUTSUSTAINABLEENERGYSYSTEMS,WITHENERGYFORMOBILITYPURPOSESASACRUCIALPARTISSUESRELATEDTODEVELOPMENTOFALTERNATIVEENERGYINTHETRANSPORTSECTORHAVETHUSBEENINTEGRATEDINTOTHEMUCHWIDERDISCOURSEONSUSTAINABLE

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