外文翻譯----企業(yè)生命周期與企業(yè)文化選擇

1、<p>　　Enterprise life cycle and the enterprise culture choice</p><p>　　N. J: Prentice Hall Journal of Management,</p><p>　　2003, ( 17) : 191- 211.</p><p>　　In the 1980s, the A

2、merican management experts Iraq chuck? Adizes' (IChakAdizes) put forward enterprise dr life-cycle theory, it follows the same with biological enterprise "life cycle" rule, will experience a from birth, grow

3、th to aging until death life. Figures show that, 1970 among the fortune global 500 list to 1983, the enterprise should have 1/3 has been extinguished. This list from the enterprise production to decay, average life expec

4、tancy is only 40 ~ 50 years old. In Japan and Europe, e</p><p>　　Why so many enterprise life cycle is so short? Why then another some enterprise has undergone several hundred years still inheritance evergree

5、n? Scholars have different explain this. Some people think that is the difference, others industrial explanation operational modes for different, still some people find reasons from management system, some people think t

6、hat entrepreneurs of the pros and cons. Although these claims have certain truth, but seem to have involved in the root of the problem, di</p><p>　　With the emergence of enterprise culture theory and the unc

7、easing development, the enterprise culture ", "Z theory", "seek advantages", "Japanese enterprise management art" four books published monographs, caused the enterprise culture research

8、 upsurge. Enterprise more and more aware of the organizational culture and regulating the important significance of organizational development, more and more profound understanding to an excellent organizational culture

9、on enterprise long-term business and</p><p>　　Rand corporation, the international management consulting firm McKinsey study found the company, all the achievements are great, the role of enterprise culture i

10、s very obvious. Excellent enterprise culture is the world's 500 to the foundation of success. The fundamental causes of longevity and outstanding, is the constant innovation enterprise culture, and maintain its advan

11、ced nature. World famous longevity companies have a common feature, which they have a persistent core values, has its uniqu</p><p>　　Although enterprise culture theory is mature and perfect, widely enterpris

12、e accepted and used. A large enterprise with excellent enterprise culture in the market competition tide the invincible position. But, on the other hand is countless companies looking for suits own enterprise culture. An

13、d some company, because enterprise life cycle and the change of environment, the original enterprise culture has not suitable for enterprise growth, even discourages enterprise from the shackles of sustaina</p>&l

14、t;p>　　The author thinks that, with inner and outer environment analysis enterprise handhold to grasp different life cycle, the main contradiction, through the enterprise principal contradiction to choose the enterpris

15、e culture, is the enterprise culture is the only choice.</p><p>　　The marxist handhold the contradiction that things, the law of the unity of opposites laws, is the most fundamental materialist dialectics of

16、 rules. The self-contradict reveals the essential contents of the associations with things development intrinsic power, is our most basic methods of knowledge. In the enterprise internal, always don't exist countless

17、 contradiction, these contradictions unceasing development and transformation, formed the enterprise life cycle goes forward. Contradiction is </p><p>　　Different life cycles, each stage the enterprise inter

18、nal conflict, interest is different, the facing problems and pressure is different, the main inconsistencies also vary wildly, therefore enterprise have different also, must choose match different enterprise culture. But

19、 because enterprise life cycle, each phase of the inherent regularity of enterprise culture of normal performance has generality, although as a means of implement cultural kernel with manifestation can vary, but as the c

20、ore va</p><p>　　Enterprise culture choice must follow some principles, can correctly development and implementation. There are usually has the following four principles: enterprise life cycle associated with

21、 enterprise culture choice of principle, the enterprise culture selection and enterprise strategic interrelated principle, universality and individuality, carry forward the principle of combining the tradition and the pr

22、inciple of combining the development innovation.</p><p>　　Because enterprise life cycle changes is a long-term incremental process, in order to guarantee the enterprise culture choice of maneuverability, ach

23、ieve successful culture choice, therefore, it is necessary to find some specific timing. Choose the things change timing reflects the degree. There is a clear changes in the enterprise, mainly in the enterprise's sur

24、vival and development of external politics, economy, culture, science and technology, and environment that significant changes have occ</p><p>　　Enterprise culture choice is a systematic project, pinpoint th

25、e breakthrough, is the guarantee success choice. The author thinks that point of enterprise culture, choose from the enterprise, must present roughly as follows three based. Starting from the main contradiction, starting

26、 from the enterprise the fine tradition of the major change, from the enterprise forward.</p><p>　　Enterprise culture choice of content including spiritual culture, system culture, material culture choice. E

27、nterprise culture spirit layer, system layer and physicality is inseparable, they influence each other, interaction, so in enterprise culture when the choice but also from grasping.</p><p>　　Enterprise cultu

28、re type selection is an important link of choice of enterprise culture. Enterprise culture type varied, according to statistics, the existing scholars put forward about 200 species of cultural types. How in the dime foun

29、d in the enterprise culture type suitable enterprise culture type, principal contradiction is a key.</p><p>　　In the initial, enterprises are faced with the main contradiction weak strength. Exploration cult

30、ure promotes cautious capital management and bold exploit the competition strategy, and is characterized by considering risk/benefit conversion between, clear enterprise this where action, be willing to accept change, da

31、res to innovate, therefore appropriate strength weak start-ups make limited capital investment and a lot of new market development. Meanwhile, exploration culture emphasize consider r</p><p>　　In growing up,

32、 the enterprise strength has achieved great growth, market share, but increased competition, looking around at the a inadvertent, easily lead to enterprise die young. The growth of this enterprise faster than the ascensi

33、on of enterprise entrepreneurs ability, enterprise management level is low speed has become a major conflict. Often leads to low level management enterprise decision makers and, on the other hand, even in a bad year succ

34、essively on market development, on the other h</p><p>　　At maturity, enterprise management level abundant funds, mature, enterprise function properly. But because the enterprise system consummation, the ente

35、rprise leaders of the lesser, technical personnel and other reasons, the conservative enterprise innovation spirit gradually disappear. At this time, transformational culture is to solve this principal contradiction best

36、 choice. Transformational culture emphasize break existing pattern, praise highly technical innovation and thought innovation, re</p><p>　　In a recession, the enterprise usually suffer from "big enterpr

37、ise disease", management serious rigidity. At the same time, because of long time lost innovation and don't improve, so the products and technology seriously outdated, losing their competitive edge. Usually the

38、enterprise or die, recession or change. Metamorphosis to type culture emphasize aggressive spirit of enterprise layer, system layer, behavior level and physical comprehensive metamorphosis, through the body eliminate ent

39、erpris</p><p>　　Because of the circumstance of the enterprise different, so we can't take some enterprise culture type derivative in one type of enterprise. True sense of enterprise culture type choice f

40、or each enterprise, it would be the only. Other enterprise successful experience for reference, and cannot copy only. Enterprise culture type of choice is more the core competitiveness, management concept, management con

41、cept, innovation consciousness choice, suitable for all firms enterprise culture type is not </p><p>　　Enterprise culture selection process is a grey hazy set four states of the evolutionary process. In this

42、 process, the potential matching enterprise culture type of relevant information constantly replenish and whiting, finally picked the most appropriate enterprise culture, this evolution characteristics based on enterpris

43、e life cycle determines the choice of enterprise culture is more than a stage decision-making process, gradual. The author put enterprise culture choice can be grouped into, fe</p><p>　　The first stage: the

44、primary. Namely, to many potential enterprise culture for fast filtering, determine the candidate goal evaluation. In this phase, the enterprise according to realize the specific situation in life cycle, main contradicti

45、ons analysis to determine the enterprise to the problems of the enterprise culture, and so as to determine the scope of domain with main the solution of the problem for the principle, according to enterprise culture type

46、 matching strategy for preliminary scre</p><p>　　Second stage: the selection. According to the first phase of each candidate determined by the nature of enterprise culture and the contradiction between solut

47、ion oriented quantified compare integratedly, further narrowing the scope of candidate enterprise culture. This one phase key lies in the life cycle according to specific principal contradiction, establishing enterprises

48、 with the evaluation index system and the characteristic of choice appraisal method. This phase is mainly aimed at specifi</p><p>　　Stage 3: optimization. According to the life cycle, the main contradiction

49、multi-objective optimization decision analysis, the enterprise culture to integrate different optimization, finally discovers the optimal enterprise culture.</p><p>　　Fourth step: elastic management enterpri

50、se culture. This one phase mainly is establishing the enterprise culture management mechanism, according to the selected enterprise culture in enterprise operations of the contribution and principal contradiction, the ch

51、ange of dynamic adjustment to reduce because the opportunism behavior and damage and reduce the current enterprise culture choice of opportunity cost. To the enterprise culture follow-up assessment and management is the

52、emphasis.</p><p>　　In the actual enterprise culture choice process, the enterprise culture choice of process and mode is vary. The author establish the four-stage model is usually sense the steps necessary t

53、o enterprise culture choice. In fact, a successful enterprise culture choice and innovation must be a long-term systematic project, must include the following aspects: seize enterprise life cycle and enterprise principal

54、 contradiction this masterstroke, pinpoint opportunity and the breakthrough, determine the e</p><p>　　企業(yè)生命周期與企業(yè)文化選擇</p><p>　　上個世紀八十年代，美國管理學家伊查克？愛迪思（IChakAdizes）博士提出了企業(yè)生命周期理論，認為企業(yè)同生物一樣都遵從“生命周期”規(guī)律

55、，都會經歷一個從出生、成長到老化直至死亡的生命歷程。有數(shù)據表明，1970年躋身《財富》全球500強之列的企業(yè)，到1983年竟然有1/3已經銷聲匿跡。這個排行榜上的企業(yè)從產生到衰亡，平均壽命只有40～50歲。在日本和歐洲，企業(yè)的平均生命周期為12.5年。在美國，有62的企業(yè)平均生命周期不到5年，存活能超過20年的企業(yè)只占企業(yè)總數(shù)的10，只有2的企業(yè)能活50年，而中國企業(yè)的平均壽命只有7～8歲，尤其是民營企業(yè)，不僅平均壽命只有2.9歲，而且

56、生存超過5年的不到9、超過8年的不到3.那些曾經響當當?shù)钠髽I(yè)：三株、巨人、愛多……都在極致的輝煌后霎時褪去了鮮艷，曇花一現(xiàn)。與此相對應的卻有另一些企業(yè)，歷經百年不衰。</p><p>　　為什么這么多企業(yè)生命周期如此短暫？為什么又有另外一些企業(yè)歷經百年仍然基業(yè)常青？對此學者有不同的解釋。有的人認為是產業(yè)的差異，有的則解釋為經營方式的不同，還有的人從管理制度上找原因，還有些人認為是企業(yè)家的優(yōu)劣。盡管這些說法都有一定

57、的道理，但似乎都沒有涉及問題的根本，都沒有找到決定企業(yè)基業(yè)常青的真正原因。</p><p>　　隨著企業(yè)文化理論的出現(xiàn)和不斷發(fā)展，《企業(yè)文化》、《Z理論》、《尋求優(yōu)勢》、《日本企業(yè)的管理藝術》四部專著的出版，掀起了企業(yè)文化研究的熱潮。企業(yè)越來越意識到規(guī)范的組織文化對企業(yè)組織發(fā)展的重要意義，越來越深刻認識到一種優(yōu)秀的組織文化對企業(yè)長期經營業(yè)績和企業(yè)的發(fā)展起著潛在的卻又至關重要的作用。</p><

58、p>　　蘭德公司、麥肯錫公司和國際管理咨詢公司研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，凡是業(yè)績輝煌的公司，企業(yè)文化的作用都十分明顯。優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化是世界500強得以成功的基石。長壽公司出類拔萃的根本原因，就在于不斷創(chuàng)新企業(yè)文化，并保持其先進性。世界上著名的長壽公司都有一個共同特征，就是它們都有一套堅持不懈的核心價值觀，有其獨特的、不斷豐富和發(fā)展的優(yōu)秀企業(yè)文化。企業(yè)文化是一種力量，隨著知識經濟的發(fā)展，它對企業(yè)的興衰將發(fā)揮越來越重要的作用，甚至是決定性的作用?？梢?/p>

59、說，21世紀企業(yè)之間的競爭，根本的是企業(yè)文化的競爭。誰擁有文化優(yōu)勢，誰就擁有競爭優(yōu)勢、效益優(yōu)勢和發(fā)展優(yōu)勢。</p><p>　　雖然企業(yè)文化理論日漸發(fā)展成熟和完善，廣泛地被企業(yè)接受和應用。一大批企業(yè)憑借著優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化在市場競爭的大潮中立于不敗之地。但是，另一方面是無數(shù)家企業(yè)在苦苦尋找適合自己的企業(yè)文化。還有一些企業(yè)，由于企業(yè)生命周期和環(huán)境的變化，原有的企業(yè)文化已不適合企業(yè)成長，甚至成為阻礙企業(yè)持續(xù)發(fā)展的桎梏。因

60、此，如何選擇符合企業(yè)發(fā)展需要的企業(yè)文化，如何根據環(huán)境和生命周期的變化選擇適宜的企業(yè)文化，成為所有企業(yè)面臨的一個關系企業(yè)興衰的重大課題。</p><p>　　筆者認為，用矛盾論來分析企業(yè)內外部環(huán)境，抓住不同生命周期的主要矛盾，通過企業(yè)主要矛盾來來選擇企業(yè)文化，是企業(yè)文化選擇的必由之路。</p><p>　　馬克思主義的矛盾論，即事物的矛盾法則，對立統(tǒng)一的法則，是唯物辯證法的最根本的法則。矛盾

61、論揭示了事物聯(lián)系的實質內容和事物發(fā)展的內在動力，是我們最根本的認識方法。在企業(yè)內部，無時無刻不存在著無數(shù)個矛盾，這些矛盾的不斷發(fā)展和轉化，形成了企業(yè)生命周期的向前推移。矛盾是企業(yè)生命周期演化的動力，企業(yè)生命周期的遞進是矛盾斗爭的結果。另一方面，企業(yè)的各種矛盾也與企業(yè)的興衰成敗息息相關。由于矛盾的性質、地位以及條件的復雜性，矛盾的解決也多種多樣。只有找到了正確的矛盾解決辦法，解決主要矛盾，企業(yè)才能不斷發(fā)展，最終基業(yè)常青。</p>

62、;<p>　　不同的生命周期，各個階段企業(yè)內部的沖突、利益不同，面臨的問題和壓力不同，存在的主要矛盾也大相徑庭，因此企業(yè)所擁有的選擇也不同，必然要求不同的企業(yè)文化相匹配。但由于企業(yè)生命周期的內在規(guī)定性，每個階段企業(yè)文化的正常表現(xiàn)都有共性，盡管作為實現(xiàn)文化內核的手段與表現(xiàn)形式可以千差萬別，但作為核心的價值取向和經營風格仍有規(guī)律可循。對企業(yè)生命周期的分析指明了不同階段主要矛盾的形成、轉換和整合，說明了不同階段企業(yè)文化的特點，從

63、而為企業(yè)文化選擇完整模式的建立奠定了基礎。</p><p>　　企業(yè)文化選擇必須遵循一定的原則，才能正確地開展和實施。通常有有如下四原則：企業(yè)生命周期與企業(yè)文化選擇相關聯(lián)的原則，企業(yè)文化選擇與企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略相互關聯(lián)的原則，共性與個性相結合的原則，弘揚傳統(tǒng)與發(fā)展創(chuàng)新相結合的原則。</p><p>　　由于企業(yè)生命周期的變化是一個長期漸進的過程，為了保證企業(yè)文化選擇的可操作性，實現(xiàn)成功的文化選擇，因

64、此有必要找到一些具體的時機。選擇的時機體現(xiàn)了事物變化的度。在企業(yè)出現(xiàn)明顯變化，主要是在企業(yè)生存發(fā)展的外部政治、經濟、文化、科技環(huán)境發(fā)生了重大變化，表明了企業(yè)量變到質變的轉換，因此掌握事物的度，是進行企業(yè)文化選擇的最佳時機。通常有以下三個時機：企業(yè)經營業(yè)績發(fā)生重大變化時，企業(yè)管理掣肘增多效率低下時，企業(yè)外部環(huán)境發(fā)生重大變化時。</p><p>　　企業(yè)文化選擇是一項系統(tǒng)工程，找準切入點，是成功選擇的保證。筆者認為，

65、選擇企業(yè)文化的切入點，必須從企業(yè)現(xiàn)況出發(fā)，大致有如下三點。從主要矛盾入手，從企業(yè)的優(yōu)良傳統(tǒng)入手，從企業(yè)的重大變化入手。</p><p>　　企業(yè)文化選擇的內容包括精神文化、制度文化、物資文化的選擇。企業(yè)文化的精神層、制度層和物質層是密不可分的，它們相互影響、相互作用，因此在企業(yè)文化選擇時也要從整體上把握。</p><p>　　企業(yè)文化類型的選擇是企業(yè)文化選擇的重要環(huán)節(jié)。企業(yè)文化類型多種多樣

66、，據統(tǒng)計，現(xiàn)有學者共提出近200種文化類型。如何在多如牛毛的企業(yè)文化類型中找到適宜的企業(yè)文化類型，主要矛盾是一把鑰匙。</p><p>　　在初創(chuàng)期，企業(yè)面臨著實力弱小的主要矛盾。探索型文化提倡謹慎的資本管理和大膽開拓的競爭策略，其特征為考慮風險/利益之間的轉換，明確企業(yè)該在何處行動，樂于接受改變，敢于創(chuàng)新，因此適宜實力弱小的初創(chuàng)企業(yè)進行有限的資本投入和大量的新市場開拓。同時，探索型文化強調考慮風險，提倡通過謹慎

67、的探索避免企業(yè)落入各種陷阱，其善變的性格也適宜于企業(yè)靈活應對市場風險。</p><p>　　在成長期，企業(yè)實力獲得了長足增長，市場份額不斷增加，但競爭對手環(huán)視周圍，一著不慎，很容易導致企業(yè)夭折。此時企業(yè)的增長速度超過了企業(yè)創(chuàng)業(yè)者能力的提升速度，企業(yè)管理水平低下成為主要矛盾。低下的管理水平常常導致企業(yè)決策者連出昏招，一方面在市場開拓上節(jié)節(jié)敗退，另一方面常常落入多元化陷阱或盲目擴張。進攻型文化強調拼搏和進攻精神，采取

68、“簡單至上”，以變制變，持續(xù)出招，而且以速度制勝，一躍爭先，力求在進攻中取勝。另外，進攻型文化也提倡穩(wěn)健，強調企業(yè)的有序發(fā)展，反對盲目進攻，避免企業(yè)頭腦發(fā)熱盲目投資。</p><p>　　在成熟期，企業(yè)資金充裕，管理水平日漸成熟，企業(yè)運轉自如。但是由于企業(yè)制度的完善、企業(yè)領導人的小富即安、技術人員的保守等原因，企業(yè)的創(chuàng)新精神逐漸消失。此時，變革型文化是解決這一主要矛盾的最佳選擇。變革型文化強調打破現(xiàn)有格局，推崇技

69、術創(chuàng)新和思想創(chuàng)新，改革原有制度和等級觀念。通過變革型文化的整合，成熟期常常能夠重喚生機和活力。</p><p>　　在衰退期，企業(yè)通常患有“大企業(yè)病”，管理嚴重僵化。同時，由于長時間失去創(chuàng)新而得不到改善，因此產品和技術嚴重過時，失去了競爭力。通常衰退期的企業(yè)要不消亡，要不蛻變。蛻變型文化強調大刀闊斧地對企業(yè)精神層、制度層、行為層和物質層的全面蛻變，通過剔除企業(yè)舊的軀體上的弊端，保留合理先進的成分，塑造一個全新的企

70、業(yè)。</p><p>　　由于企業(yè)的情況千差萬別，因此我們不能把某種企業(yè)文化類型生搬硬套到某一類企業(yè)上。真正意義上的企業(yè)文化類型選擇對于每一個企業(yè)來說，都是唯一的。其他企業(yè)成功的經驗只能借鑒，而不能照搬。企業(yè)文化類型的選擇更多的是核心競爭力、經營理念、管理理念、創(chuàng)新意識的選擇，適宜于所有企業(yè)的的企業(yè)文化類型是不存在的。因此，企業(yè)文化類型的選擇是一項動態(tài)、靈活的工作，既不必拘泥于任何形式和條條框框，也不能照搬他人成

71、功的經驗。</p><p>　　企業(yè)文化的選擇過程是一個灰朦朧集四態(tài)的演化過程。在這個過程中，潛在匹配的企業(yè)文化類型的有關信息不斷地補充并白化，最終挑選出最適宜的企業(yè)文化，這種演化特征決定了基于企業(yè)生命周期的企業(yè)文化選擇決策過程是一個多階段的、漸進的過程。筆者把企業(yè)文化選擇分為初選、精選、優(yōu)化、企業(yè)文化的彈性管理四個階段。</p><p>　　第一階段：初選。即對眾多潛在的企業(yè)文化進行快速

72、過濾，確定可供評價的候選目標。在這一階段，企業(yè)根據實現(xiàn)所在生命周期的具體情況，進行主要矛盾分析以確定企業(yè)亟待解決的問題，并以此確定企業(yè)文化的論域范圍，以主要矛盾的解決為原則，按企業(yè)文化類型匹配策略進行初步篩選。基于主要矛盾解決的潛在企業(yè)文化搜索策略是這一階段的關鍵。</p><p>　　第二階段：精選。根據第一階段所確定的各候選企業(yè)文化之間的性質和矛盾解決導向的定量化綜合比較，進一步縮小候選企業(yè)文化的范圍。這一階

73、段的關鍵在于根據特定的生命周期主要矛盾，建立符合企業(yè)自身特色的評價指標體系及選擇評價方法。這一階段主要是針對特定的指標體系，采用有效的算法對候選企業(yè)文化進行綜合評價，并對具有相近評價值的候選企業(yè)文化進行過濾。</p><p>　　第三階段：優(yōu)化。根據生命周期的主要矛盾，進行多目標優(yōu)化決策分析，對不同的企業(yè)文化進行整合優(yōu)化，最終找出最優(yōu)的企業(yè)文化。</p><p>　　第四階段：企業(yè)文化的彈

74、性管理。這一階段主要是建立企業(yè)文化的管理機制，根據所選的企業(yè)文化在企業(yè)運作中的貢獻和主要矛盾的變化來動態(tài)調整，以減少由于機會主義行為而造成的損失以及減少當前的企業(yè)文化選擇的機會成本。對企業(yè)文化的跟蹤評價及管理是這一階段的重點。</p><p>　　在實際的企業(yè)文化選擇過程中，企業(yè)文化選擇的過程和方式也是不一而足的。筆者建立的四階段模型只是通常意義上企業(yè)文化選擇的必要步驟。事實上，一次成功的企業(yè)文化選擇和革新必定是

75、一個長期系統(tǒng)的工程，必然包括以下幾個方面：抓住企業(yè)生命周期與企業(yè)主要矛盾這條主線，找準時機和切入點，確定企業(yè)文化選擇的內容，結合企業(yè)實際情況選擇企業(yè)文化類型，并按照四階段模型進行具體的選擇步驟，最終選擇并建立一個優(yōu)秀的企業(yè)文化。</p><p>　　The Evolution of the Culture of Enterprise</p><p>　　ERVIN LASZLO</p

76、><p>　　Villa Franatoni 1-56040 Montescudaio (Pisa) Italy</p><p><b>　　Abstract:</b></p><p>　　At the top echelons of contemporary business, managers are becoming concerned wi

77、th the unsustainability of the way companies now operate. A transformation of basic business strategies appears more and more indicated. For such transformation to be effective, the culture of the enterprise--the goals i

78、t pursues and the vision of these goals entertained by managers and collaborators--needs to change. Consequently there is a growing questioning of the viability of the typical culture of today's enter</p><

79、p>　　The leading edge of the globally operating world of business is becoming keenly concerned with changes in today's social, economic, and ecologic environment. At the top echelons of management an intense search

80、 is under way for up-to-date modes of thinking and acting. It comes to the fore in the emphasis managers place on corporate strategy, corporate identity, corporate philosophy, even corporate ethics. An organizational rev

81、olution is underway, as managers seek to communicate their vision with </p><p>　　The ongoing transformation of the enterprise culture is a positive factor in our changing and unpredictable world. It means th

82、at companies are becoming more sensitive to the changes that obtain in their environment, and more ready to respond to them. The new emphasis on management and company ethics also suggests that businesses are willing to

83、assume the responsibility that goes with their larger role in society. Global enterprises wield unprecedented power and influence, and the transformation </p><p>　　The transformation of the enterprise cultur

84、e is timely: the company culture dominant for most of this century became obsolete. It focused on the workings of the enterprise without much regard for its social and ecologic environment; it operated on the premise tha

85、t the business of business is business--if it comes up with good products or services, it fulfills all its obligations vis-a-vis society and nature. The self-centered methods of the traditional management philosophy no l

86、onger produce acc</p><p>　　Global companies no longer resemble a giant mechanism, controlled by those on top. This is new in the history of modern business. For most of the 20th century, top management could

87、 command the company structures without being influenced by, or even much concerned with, its lower echelons. Motivation for task-fulfillment was created by material incentives bolstered by threats; individual creativity

88、 and initiative were dismissed as unnecessary nuisance. Power was concentrated, together with respon</p><p>　　The economic growth-environment of the post-war period did not provide grounds to modify, or even

89、 question, this philosophy. Almost anything an enterprising manager would try had a knack of succeeding; he could even engage in personal bravado. Technological progress seemed assured, and expanding markets seemed to di

90、stribute the benefits of growth. The post-war economy welcomed all entrepreneurs; they could grow as the economy did. Long-term costs, if any, were hidden in the long term. In that re</p><p>　　In the 1970s a

91、nd '80s the situation had changed. The economic growth curve flattened out and optimistic extrapolations failed to come true. Social alienation and anomie rose, and technology produced unexpected side-effects: scares

92、 and catastrophes at Three Mile Island, Bhopal, and Chernobyl, the ozone hole over the Antarctic, recurrent instances of acid rain and oil spill, and worsening environmental pollution in cities and on land. Belief in pro

93、gress was shaken. Intellectuals and youth groups f</p><p>　　By the late 1980s further changes occurred in the operating environment. Environmental concerns moved from the fringes of society into the marketpl

94、ace; people proved amenable to paying higher prices for products they deemed environmentally friendly; and they were known to boycott companies that remained environmentally polluting or unresponsive. New information and

95、 communication technologies came on line, markets became integrated and internationalized, product cycles became shorter and product </p><p>　　In the late 1990s the diffusion of information and the growth in

96、 the intensity and number of interfaces between people, departments, and divisions have radically changed the company's operative structures. Not only information, also people emerged as the key resource of the enter

97、prise; teamwork proved to be the best way this resource could be tapped. The boundary between the company and its economic, social, and ecologic environment turned fuzzy. Within the business sphere fusions, alliances, an

98、</p><p>　　Under these circumstances, there is a dire need for new and adapted management concepts. There is no dearth of advice. Theorists speak of activity bundling and the company' capacity to sustaina

99、bly capture the highest portion of the total industry value-added chain's profit margin; strategy specialists emphasize the need for management to focus on dynamic competitive positioning and customer-driven processe