企業(yè)文化外文翻譯

1、<p><b>　　中文4370字</b></p><p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文（設計）</p><p><b>　　外文翻譯</b></p><p>　　外文題目 Corporate Culture </p><p>　　外文出處

2、Management Decision Volume: 27 Issue: 1 1989： </p><p>　　P15-16 </p><p>　　外文作者 Liam Gorman </p><p><

3、;b>　　原文：</b></p><p>　　Corporate Culture </p><p>　　Liam Gorman</p><p>　　What is Corporate Culture</p><p>　　Let us now look more specifically at the question of

4、what corporate culture is, the types of corporate culture that may exist, and at the question of best fit between culture, company and environments.</p><p>　　All definitions of culture refer to the undergrou

5、nd nature of culture and to the hidden hand with which culture guides behaviour, thought and feelings.</p><p>　　Looking at how culture is formed helps us to understand its character and impact. Schein[l], fo

6、r instance, points out that culture is the total of the collective or shared learning of the group as it develops its capacity to survive in its external environment and to manage its own internal affairs. It comprises t

7、he solutions to external and internal problems that have worked in the past and that are taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think about and feel in relation to those </p><p>　　Culture is c

8、omposed of:</p><p>　　(1) Values and assumptions which prescribe what is important.</p><p>　　(2) Beliefs on how things work;</p><p>　　(3) Behavioural norms—a set of attitudes that ar

9、e easier to decipher than values and assumptions.</p><p>　　In the past, culture was thought of as a set of attitudes at the bottom of organizations which could be problematic, in that it was frequently an a

10、nti-management culture and thus "bad". It was assumed that management had the "right" attitudes, or attitudes in support of company goals.</p><p>　　Culture, however, operates at all level

11、s, and we are now more aware that there can be aspects of culture affecting all hierarchical levels which can be self defeating for the organisation. Past crises, achievements, successes and failures lead to the creation

12、 of assumptions about:</p><p>　　(1) reality (you cannot trust banks);</p><p>　　(2) truth (people are a company's most important asset);</p><p>　　(3) time (you must always be see

13、n to be busy);</p><p>　　(4) human nature (women are less committed to work than men);</p><p>　　(5) human relationships (do not let subordinates get close to you).</p><p>　　The condi

14、tions under which past organisational issues and problems were resolved do not remain in the consciousness of the organisation. Responses to these conditions become automatic and accepted as the way things are done. In t

15、his way, severe limitations are set on individuals' behaviour and thought, and the strong but hidden impact of culture is established. This is not to say that because culture embodies past solutions, it is inappropri

16、ate per se. Obviously, some solutions found in the past</p><p>　　(1)beliefs can produce a strategic myopia leading them to see events with tunnel vision, and this leads them to overlook the significance of c

17、hanging external conditions;</p><p>　　(2)when top management recognizes the need for strategic change, they respond within their existing culture, using responses that have worked in the past. In this way, y

18、esterday's solutions may become today's problems.</p><p>　　Variations in Culture</p><p>　　Culture can vary from one organisation to another, or even within one organisation. It varies al

19、ong such dimensions as strength, pervasiveness, direction and obviously, Content.</p><p>　　(1)Strength of culture refers to the extent to which members of an organisation embrace the values of the culture. C

20、ustomer service, for instance, will take a higher priority in some organisations than in others.</p><p>　　(2)Pervasiveness refers to the extent to which beliefs and values are shared amongst departments in a

21、n organisation. Culture depends on experience and departments are likely to have different problems to solve, different experiences and, hence, differences in culture.</p><p>　　(3)Direction refers to the ext

22、ent to which the culture embodies behaviour in line with the expressed strategy of the organisation, or behaviour counter to the expressed strategy. For example, the existence of alternative cultures arising from trade

23、union commitments have, on occasion, threatened the survival of some business organisations.</p><p>　　Overall then, a culture can be said, from a managerial viewpoint, to be positive if it creates behaviour

24、consistent with the expressed strategy; if it constitutes values "owned" by members at all levels. It has negative impact if, for instance, the culture is such that it is strong and pervasive but antagonistic t

25、o company goals; then the organisation has big problems in the strategy area. Equally, if it is strong and supportive of company goals but only subscribed to by one group in the organis</p><p>　　The Appropri

26、ate Culture for an Organisation</p><p>　　The appropriate culture for an organisation depends on many factors, including the age of the organisation, its market, its geographical location, history and even th

27、e</p><p>　　preferences of the chief executive and top management. Organisations which operate in dynamic environments in which consumer preferences change rapidly, technology developments occur frequently, a

28、nd competition is intense, place a great emphasis on creativity, innovation and adaptability. </p><p>　　However, in government departments, hospitals, welfare institutions etc., stability, predictability and

29、 getting it right at all costs may be more appropriate.</p><p>　　Very strong cultures, too, can have disadvantages, as well as advantages. A major disadvantage is that they can prove particularly resistant t

30、o change. Awareness of one's culture, its strengths and weaknesses and its appropriateness to its environment, may be a more basic element than factors such as strength and pervasiveness. It is important to know one&

31、#39;s culture before one thinks about change. It may be more appropriate to tailor one's strategy to one's culture, rather than the other way roun</p><p>　　The Functions of Culture</p><p&g

32、t;　　The functions of culture are:</p><p>　　(1)Transmission of learning; through the organisation culture, members learn to perceive reality in a particular way, to make certain assumptions about what is impo

33、rtant, how things work and how to behave, thus reducing complexity.</p><p>　　(2)To unite the organisation; consistency in outlook and value makes decision making, control, coordination and common purpose pos

34、sible at all levels.</p><p>　　(3)To give meaning to members of an organization people need to find meaning in their lives; it is important that they feel that they are part of a team. Loss of meaning, throug

35、h the de-skilling of jobs, for example, can result in the development of a culture which excludes management.</p><p>　　(4)To handle strong emotions; emotions ranging from anger, aggression and fear to hope a

36、nd enthusiasm are handled according to the culture of an organisation.</p><p>　　How to Understand Your Corporate Culture</p><p>　　There are a number of typical cultural indicators that help a ma

37、nager to understand his/her culture.</p><p>　　Stories and Myths</p><p>　　Many organisations are confronted with overwhelming uncertainty, conflicts of interest and often incomprehensible complex

38、ity.</p><p>　　Through the culture's myths, metaphors and symbols, a different world is created, a world in which the perception of complexity is reduced, one in which the organization seems to have more

39、control and to engage in rational action. Examples of myths include:</p><p>　　(1) "Too much analysis is bad".</p><p>　　(2) "It will be OK on the day".</p><p>　　(

40、3) "We are at our best under pressure".</p><p>　　Organisations might also consider trying to influence the culture directly by creating myths, parables and metaphors that will excite people about p

41、roblems facing the organisation or that will energise people by creating hope or success feelings by reminding them of difficulties that have been overcome. It has been confirmed that the persuasive power of anecdote, st

42、ory and metaphors have a greater influence than the persuasive powers of statistical information. Therefore, delving into the storie</p><p>　　Symbols and their Meanings</p><p>　　As well as symbo

43、ls of power and status, physical surroundings are also symbolically important. Corporate logos and liveries convey style and identity. The location of an organisation within a city and the type of building usually say so

44、mething about the organisation' s values. The care taken with housekeeping can give evidence of attention to quality, just as the quality of physical surroundings for lower-level employees demonstrates how they are v

45、alued. These are examples of how observers can g</p><p>　　Rituals and Ceremonies: a public celebration of beliefs and values. Rituals and ceremonies serve the purpose of celebrating distinction at a senior l

46、evel, or of rewarding spectacular contributions at all levels. The functions of ceremonies include:</p><p>　　(1) integration and cohesion, e.g. we are all in this together;</p><p>　　(2) reassura

47、nce of the strength of the organisation;</p><p>　　(3) rallying support in an effort to sustain or improve the organisation;</p><p>　　(4) enabling people to cast off their roles and organisationa

48、l masks and present other aspects of themselves.</p><p>　　Hero Myths</p><p>　　Some organisations limit their heroes to a small powerful group, whereas others create hero myths at all levels and

49、across all functions. The values of hard work, exceptional commitment to a particular goal, acceptance of personal responsibility and sustained effort in gaining confidence can be reinforced through hero myths. Hero myth

50、s serve many purposes:</p><p>　　(1) they serve to set standards of performance;</p><p>　　(2) they show that with effort, success is attainable;</p><p>　　(3) they provide the role mo

51、dels for the organisation;</p><p>　　(4) they symbolise the organisation to the outside world.</p><p>　　However, hero myths can be dysfunctional. In a counter culture, for instance, hero myths ma

52、y focus on those who have triumphed in an interdepartmental conflict, or by conforming ("to get along, go along") or they may enshrine the success of low-trust approaches ("do unto others before they do un

53、to you").</p><p><b>　　Taboos</b></p><p>　　Organisations generally reserve their strongest sanctions for breaches of taboos. Taboos are not usually made explicit, nor are the con

54、sequences of violating them. The outcome from offending against a taboo typically involves dismissal, social isolation or humiliation. Frequently, taboos do not become public until they are violated,and people do not eve

55、n talk about them. In family firms a taboo can be concerned with disagreeing strongly with one of the founding family. Some organisational taboos</p><p>　　Rites of Passage</p><p>　　Rites of pass

56、age are a particular type of ceremony and include initiation rites, promotion, dismissal, and retirement:</p><p>　　Initiation rites involve a formal initiation into some verbally embraced culture and later a

57、 further initiation in an informal way into the real culture. This contrast in initiation is highly significant in understanding the organisation.</p><p>　　Retirement rites, while seeming to be about individ

58、uals, are usually the occasions for stories, speeches and anecdotes which reinforce particular cultural values.</p><p>　　Dismissal rites are often used to suggest that the organisation is now cleansed of som

59、e deviant behavior or poor performance by the firing of a single individual, even though many others typically could have been held responsible. Dismissal rites are also used to show that firing is not arbitrary or unfai

60、r, but a systematic and judicial process has been conducted.</p><p>　　Structure, Control Systems and Formality of Relationships</p><p>　　Organisations with many levels and well-documented proced

61、ures for decision making are unlikely to reflect a culture which puts a premium on risk taking, as opposed to getting it right at all costs. The compensation system in organisations can also provide an obvious clue about

62、 values. Salary scales in which employees progress in orderly increments over a long period are likely to reflect values of loyalty rather than values of achievement. Review of strategic decisions over a period of time c

63、an </p><p>　　Cultural Change</p><p>　　The responsibility for strategy formulation, for identifying the need for cultural change and for pursuing this change lies with top management and the chie

64、f executive. There are a number of underlying issues that top management must recognise if they are to come to terms with culture and cultural change:</p><p>　　(1) They must recognise that in most organisati

65、ons top management has come to the fore on the basis of wisdom, solutions and performance that may now be in need of change. The questioning of a culture, however, may well threaten careers, statuses, power structures an

66、d self images. Often cultural change occurs when a chief executive is appointed and/or significant changes are made in the top management team. In many cases cultural change has arisen due to forces outside the organisat

67、ion, e.g. cus</p><p>　　(2) Managers should be aware that culture is formed not only by the organisation's contact with the environment, but also through members' contact with each other. Members of o

68、rganisations must learn not only how to beat the competition, and how to handle outside forces. They must also learn how to deal with each other and their needs for power. They must learn to handle and control fear, anxi

69、ety and aggression towards each other. Equally, they must learn how to release their capacities for crea</p><p>　　(3) Culture is perpetuated by random reinforcement. The assumptions, values and beliefs that

70、make up culture are based on past experience — successes and failures. Past successes lead to an assumption that similar measures will result in organisational success in the present and future. After a few successes wit

71、h the use of such measures, their relevance ceases to be challenged and examined and they become givens or assumptions about the nature of reality. Actions arising from such assumptions a</p><p>　　(4) Apart

72、from planned cultural change, some incidental opportunities for change can arise that should not be overlooked. These include the appointment of a new chief executive, the introduction of new technology or the restructur

73、ing of the management team. These changes often do not work as planned because the existing culture is challenged and the changes are consequently resisted because the cultural issues have been overlooked.</p><

74、;p><b>　　譯文：</b></p><p><b>　　企業(yè)文化</b></p><p><b>　　利亞姆哥曼</b></p><p><b>　　什么是企業(yè)文化</b></p><p>　　現在，讓我們更具體地來看一下什么是企業(yè)文化，企業(yè)文

75、化可能存在的類型，還有文化、企業(yè)和環(huán)境之間的最佳配合問題。</p><p>　　文化的所有定義都指向文化深層的本質及其引導行為、思想和情感的那股看不見的勢力。</p><p>　　看看文化是怎樣形成的，能幫助我們理解它的特點和影響。Schein[l]，例如，指出文化是集體的或共享的團隊知識的總合，正如它開發(fā)自己的能力以繼續(xù)存在于它的外部環(huán)境中并管理它的內政。它包括內部和外部問題的解答，這種

76、解答過去是湊效的，現在又被教給新成員作為理解、思考和感覺那些問題的正確方式。文化的構成：</p><p>　　（1） 規(guī)定了什么是重要的價值和假設；</p><p>　　（2）事物如何運作的信念；</p><p>　?。?）行為規(guī)范 ：一套比價值和假設更容易辨認的態(tài)度；</p><p>　　過去，文化被認為是組織底部的一套屬性，它可能是有問題

77、的，它常常是一種反管理文化并且因此是壞的。假設是，管理部門有正確的態(tài)度，或者是支持公司目標的態(tài)度。</p><p>　　然而，文化在各個層次都起作用，并且現在我們更清楚在那些文化的某些方面會影響組織的所有層次的地方，可為組織戰(zhàn)勝自我。過去的危機、成就、成功和失敗導致產生如下假設：</p><p>　　(1)真實（你不能相信銀行）</p><p>　　(2)真理（人們

78、是公司最重要的資產）</p><p>　　(3)時間（人們必須總是看見你忙碌）</p><p>　　(4)人類的本性（對于工作，女性比男性承諾的更少）</p><p>　　(5)人際關系（不要讓屬下親近你）</p><p>　　過去解決組織上的事件和問題的條件，并沒有遺留在組織成員的意識里。對這些狀況的應對變成自動的和公認的了，正像做這些事的

79、方式（是自動的和公認的）。通過這種方式，嚴格的限制設立在個人行為和思想上，而文化的強大的隱藏的影響便確立了。這并不是說文化包含了過去的解決辦法，它本身就是不適合的。明顯的，過去發(fā)現的解決辦法如今并沒有得到應用，例如，車輪。危險是，無論如何，面臨問題的組織將經歷變革，并且過去的解決辦法可能不適用于新問題。更具毀滅性的是，決策者可能沒意識到文化的隱藏形式如何影響他們。</p><p>　　文化可以影響管理者們的所看

80、見的，繼而影響他們如何作答。Lorsch[2]主張，最高管理部門持有的信念可以從兩方面抑制戰(zhàn)略的變化：</p><p>　　(1)信念可以產生一種戰(zhàn)略近視，導致他們用隧道視野看待事件，并導致他們忽視具有意義重大的外部條件的改變。</p><p>　　(2) 當最高管理部門意識到改變策略的需要時，他們在現存的文化內用過去有用的來應對。如此，昨日的解決方法變成了今日的問題。</p>

81、<p><b>　　文化中的變動</b></p><p>　　不同企業(yè)的文化不同，甚至同一企業(yè)的文化也不同。它在這些方面不同：在力度、分布、方向（不同）及明顯地，在內容上（不同）。</p><p>　　(1)文化力度指的是企業(yè)成員接受文化價值的廣度。例如，顧客服務比其它方面，在某些企業(yè)享有更高的優(yōu)先權。</p><p>　　(2)

82、分布指的是一個企業(yè)的部門間共享的信念和價值的廣度，文化依賴于經驗，而不同部門可能有不同的難題要解決，因不同的經驗而引致的不同文化。</p><p>　　(3)方向指的是文化包含的與企業(yè)表達的政策一致或相反的行為的廣度。例如，在工會的約定中產生的非主流文化的存在，偶爾會威脅某些經營企業(yè)的生存。</p><p>　　總之，從管理的角度來說，如果文化創(chuàng)造的行為與表達的策略一致，如果文化由它不同水

83、平的成員擁有的價值組成，如果那么它就是積極地。文化也有消極的影響，例如，文化是如此強勢如此普遍，卻與公司目標敵對，于是，該企業(yè)在策略領域有了更大的難題。同樣地，如果文化是強勢的并支持公司目標，但只受企業(yè)的一個團體支持，這也有不利的策略牽連。</p><p><b>　　適合企業(yè)的文化</b></p><p>　　適合企業(yè)的文化依賴于許多因素，包括企業(yè)的年齡，企業(yè)的市場

84、，企業(yè)的地理位置，企業(yè)的歷史甚至首席執(zhí)行官和頂級管理層的偏愛。在企業(yè)運營的動態(tài)環(huán)境中，顧客的偏愛迅速改變，技術突破常常發(fā)生，競爭相當激烈，強調創(chuàng)造、革新和適應。</p><p>　　然而，在政府部門、醫(yī)院、福利企業(yè)等組織，平穩(wěn)地、可預見性地、不惜一切代價的使文化被理解，可能更合適。</p><p>　　很強勢的文化也有不利和有利條件。一個重要的不利就是，他們可以證實是特別抵抗改變的。對自己

85、的文化，文化的長處短處，及其對環(huán)境的適應性的認識，可能是種比力度和分布更基礎的元素。在思考改變之前了解自己的文化是很重要的。調整自己的策略以適應文化可能比另一種相反的方式更合適些。</p><p><b>　　文化的功能</b></p><p><b>　　文化的功能是：</b></p><p>　　(1)傳播學識；通過企

86、業(yè)文化，成員學者從一個特定的角度觀察現實，設想什么事重要的，事情是怎樣發(fā)生的，該怎樣表現，如此減少復雜性。</p><p>　　(2)團結企業(yè)成員；觀點和價值觀的一致，使各級人員做決定，控制，協(xié)調以及擁有共同的目標都成為可能。</p><p>　　(3)給組織中那些尋找生命的意義的人們以意義；讓他們感覺自己是團隊的一員，這很重要。失去了意義，雖然降低作業(yè)的技術程度，這是一個例子，結果卻導致

87、阻礙管理的文化的發(fā)展。</p><p>　　(4)處理強烈的情感；情感范圍從生氣、侵略和恐懼到希望和激情，都依據企業(yè)文化進行處理。</p><p>　　如何理解你的企業(yè)文化</p><p>　　有很多典型的文化指示劑幫助管理者理解自己的文化。</p><p><b>　　故事和神話</b></p><

88、p>　　許多企業(yè)面臨著壓倒性的不確定性，興趣沖突還有常常發(fā)生的令人費解的復雜的事物。</p><p>　　通過文化中的神話、隱喻和象征，一個不同的世界就創(chuàng)造出來了，在這個世界里，對復雜事物的洞察力減弱了，企業(yè)似乎有更多的控制行為和合理的參與。所包含的神話的例子：</p><p>　　(1)過多的分析并非好事</p><p>　　(2)船到橋頭自然直</p

89、><p>　　(3).我們在強大的壓力下仍竭盡全力</p><p>　　企業(yè)可能也考慮嘗試通過直接創(chuàng)造神話、寓言和隱喻以影響文化，這將使人們激動地面對企業(yè)或將通過使他們回想曾克服的困難來創(chuàng)造希望或成功的感覺以使他們精力充沛。有一點已經被真實，就是奇聞異事、故事和隱喻的說服力比統(tǒng)計數據的說服力有更大的影響。因此，深入探究一個企業(yè)的故事和神話可以引導你理解文化，同時提供一個促進變化的可能性。<

90、;/p><p><b>　　象征及其意義</b></p><p>　　正如權利和地位的象征，物理環(huán)境也有象征性的重要性。企業(yè)標志和制服表達了風格和身份。企業(yè)在市內的位置和它的建筑類型經常道出了企業(yè)的價值觀。家政的照顧給出了關注品質的證據，正如底層雇員周圍環(huán)境的品質證明他們被怎么看待的（是否被重視）。這是觀察者們能夠超越語言信息與企業(yè)的價值體系保持聯(lián)系的例子。</p&

91、gt;<p>　　儀式和典禮：信念和價值的公共慶典。儀式和典禮服務于較高榮譽的慶典，或獎勵不同層次的重大貢獻。儀式的功能包括：</p><p>　　(1)綜合和團結，例如，我們在這一點上很團結。</p><p>　　(2)企業(yè)力量的再保證</p><p>　　(3)重新召集支持以努力支持或提高企業(yè)</p><p>　　(4)使人

92、們能夠放棄自己的角色和企業(yè)的面具并展現出自己的另一面</p><p><b>　　英雄的神話</b></p><p>　　有些企業(yè)把它的英雄限制在在小范圍的強勢群體中，而其他的企業(yè)則在各個職能所有的層級都創(chuàng)造英雄的神話。辛勤工作的價值，對特定目標的杰出的承諾，接受個人的責任，為獲得信心而付出的持久的努力，（這些都）可以通過英雄的神話被加強。英雄的神話可以用作許多議題：

93、</p><p>　　(1)他們可用于設立行為的標準</p><p>　　(2)他們演示了經過努力，成功是可以獲得的</p><p>　　(3)他們?yōu)槠髽I(yè)提供了角色模型</p><p>　　(4)他們向世界用符號表示了企業(yè)</p><p>　　然而，英雄的神話可能功能不良。例如在一個相反的文化中，英雄神話可能集中在這些

94、人身上，他們在部門間的矛盾中獲勝，或通過遵守（“要么相處，要么走開”）或銘記（“寧可先我負人，切莫讓人先負我”） 的成功低信任方式取勝。</p><p><b>　　禁忌</b></p><p>　　企業(yè)對違背禁忌者保留最強的處罰。禁忌并不總是清晰地制定的，或是侵犯他們的后果。冒犯禁忌的后果通常包括解雇，社會孤立或恥辱。通常的，禁忌不會變成公共的，直到他們被違反，而人

95、們甚至不會談論這些。在家族企業(yè)，禁忌可能會牽涉到某一家庭成員的強烈反對。某些企業(yè)的禁忌并不集中在挑戰(zhàn)生意人做出的道德上的假設。這種禁忌的真正的危險是社會中對這些假設的包容開始改變（由于禁忌的因素，這一點未被企業(yè)注意到），并最終導致企業(yè)的生存將被威脅的嚴重的問題?？赡艿睦泳褪窍銦熒a商，或有大氣或環(huán)境的污染歷史的公司。</p><p><b>　　通過禮儀</b></p>&l

96、t;p>　　通過禮儀是一種禮儀的特別類型，包括冠禮，晉升，解雇和退休：</p><p>　　初起儀式包括正式的開始進入某些口頭信奉的文化和后來以非正式的方式更進一步的進入真正的文化。這種啟蒙中的對比在理解企業(yè)文化時是意義重大的。</p><p>　　退休禮儀，看似是關于個人的，通常是關于故事，演講和奇聞異事的場合，它能使特定的文化價值更具說服力。</p><p&g

97、t;　　解雇禮儀通常用來表明組織正在通過解雇個人，盡管其它許多人通常會被追究責任，來清理離經叛道的行為或不佳的表現，那些離經叛道的行為或不佳的表現。解雇禮儀也用于顯示解雇不是專制的或不公平的，而是一種體統(tǒng)的公正的行為。</p><p>　　結構，控制系統(tǒng)和拘謹的關系</p><p>　　與為得到權利不惜一切代價形成對照，有多層次、存檔完好的決策程序的企業(yè)不大可能反映出那種鼓勵冒險的文化。企

98、業(yè)的薪酬制度可以提供明顯的關于價值的線索。員工的薪水等級在一個較長時期有序增加，這很可能反映了忠誠的價值,而不是成就的價值?；仡櫼欢〞r期內的戰(zhàn)略決策可以提供文化本質的指針，因為它可以指出公司所采取的趨勢和方向及在選擇中被放棄的趨勢。事實上，有人指出理解文化最深假設的好方法就是回顧戰(zhàn)略決策的制定過程，特別注意在這個過程中拒絕的實施路徑（即怎樣拒絕）。</p><p><b>　　文化的改變</b&g

99、t;</p><p>　　對策略規(guī)劃的回復，識別文化改變和追隨這個改變的需要的回復，得靠高層管理部門和首席執(zhí)行官。如果高層管理部門想在文化和文化改變之間達成協(xié)議，有很多潛在的爭議，是他們必須認清的：</p><p>　　(1)他們必須認清，大多數企業(yè)的高層管理部門已經認識到智慧、解決方案和表現，現在需要改變。然而，文化的問題，可能威脅事業(yè)、地位、權利結構和自我形象。通常，當首席執(zhí)行官被任命

100、或意義重大的變化發(fā)生在高層管理部門時，文化改變就發(fā)生了。在很多事例中，文化改變的發(fā)生歸因于企業(yè)外部的力量，例如，顧客，銀行，政府或失去市場占有率。</p><p>　　(2)管理者必須意識到，文化的形成不僅通過企業(yè)的環(huán)境的接觸，還通過員工之間的接觸。企業(yè)員工不僅要學會打敗競爭，也要學會處理外在力量。他們也必須學會如何處理各自的權利需求。他們必須學習處理和控制恐懼、焦急和指向各人的侵略。公平的，他們必須學會如何釋放

101、他們的競爭和合作能力，還有希望和取樂能力。我們的恐懼導致我們的思想收縮和行動上的過多的注意力，導致部門間的保護并進一步導致企業(yè)的衰退和下降。</p><p>　　(3)文化因隨機加固而不朽。假設、價值觀和信念組成了文化，它們以過去的經驗為基礎——成功和失敗。過去的成功導致一種假設，就是類似的措施將導致企業(yè)的成功，不論是過去還是將來。用這種措施取得一些成功后，它們的相關性終止了，它們被挑戰(zhàn)被檢驗并成為關于現實的本質

102、的假設。由這種假設產生的行動，很少被獎勵并且變得很難消除。過去的失敗導致避免憑借個體或類推學習，無論何時過去的要挾、危險行為或情況被避免，組織被回報以減少此時的焦慮。然而，與此同時，過去或將來的環(huán)境可能會發(fā)生根本性的改變，以至于先前的懲罰現在可能被獎勵。</p><p>　　(4)且不說有計劃的文化變化，某些偶然性的改變機會能是那些不該被注意到的事情得到關注。這些包括任命一個新的首席執(zhí)行官，介紹新的技術或構造轉化