美國(guó)總統(tǒng)就職演講的批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析【畢業(yè)論文】

1、<p><b>　　本科畢業(yè)論文</b></p><p><b>　?。?0 屆）</b></p><p><b>　　英語(yǔ)</b></p><p>　　美國(guó)總統(tǒng)就職演講的批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析</p><p>　　Critical Discourse Analysis o

2、f U.S. Presidents Kennedy’s & Obama’s Inaugural Addresses</p><p><b>　　誠(chéng) 信 聲 明</b></p><p>　　我聲明，所呈交的論文(設(shè)計(jì))是本人在老師指導(dǎo)下進(jìn)行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。據(jù)我查證，除了文中特別加以標(biāo)注和致謝的地方外，論文(設(shè)計(jì))中不包含其他人已經(jīng)發(fā)表或撰寫過的研究成

3、果，也不包含為獲得＿＿＿＿＿＿或其他教育機(jī)構(gòu)的學(xué)位或證書而使用過的材料。我承諾，論文(設(shè)計(jì))中的所有內(nèi)容均真實(shí)、可信。</p><p>　　論文(設(shè)計(jì))作者簽名： 簽名日期： 年 月 日</p><p><b>　　授 權(quán) 聲 明</b></p><p>　　學(xué)校有權(quán)保留送交論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的原件，允許論文（設(shè)計(jì)）被查閱和

4、借閱，學(xué)校可以公布論文（設(shè)計(jì)）的全部或部分內(nèi)容，可以影印、縮印或其他復(fù)制手段保存論文（設(shè)計(jì)），學(xué)校必須嚴(yán)格按照授權(quán)對(duì)論文(設(shè)計(jì))進(jìn)行處理，不得超越授權(quán)對(duì)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）進(jìn)行任意處置。</p><p>　　論文(設(shè)計(jì))作者簽名： 簽名日期： 年 月 日</p><p><b>　　摘要</b></p><p>　　批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)

5、分析是自上世紀(jì)七十年代末八十年代初由以 Roger Fowler 和Gunther Kress等為代表的西方語(yǔ)言學(xué)家發(fā)展起來(lái)的話語(yǔ)分析方法。批評(píng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)的方法論主要建立在系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)上。它特別強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)語(yǔ)篇生成、傳播和接受的生活語(yǔ)境和社會(huì)歷史背景的考察，并把注意力主要放在發(fā)現(xiàn)和分析語(yǔ)篇中那些人們習(xí)以為常而往往視而不見的思想觀念，以便人們對(duì)它們進(jìn)行重新審視。美國(guó)總統(tǒng)就職演說(shuō)是總統(tǒng)就職典禮的重要組成部分。歷屆總統(tǒng)的就職演說(shuō)就是一部美國(guó)歷史的縮

6、影。它不僅代表了總統(tǒng)本人，更加代表了總統(tǒng)所在的政黨和國(guó)家，所以具有強(qiáng)烈的國(guó)家權(quán)力意識(shí)(power will)，而且還處處透露出其主要的意識(shí)形態(tài)。本文通過對(duì)肯尼迪和奧巴馬總統(tǒng)的就職演說(shuō)稿的批評(píng)性分析，揭示出美國(guó)政府及其社會(huì)存在的權(quán)利意識(shí)形態(tài)。</p><p>　　關(guān)鍵詞：批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析；意識(shí)形態(tài)；系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)；就職演說(shuō)</p><p><b>　　Abstract</b&g

7、t;</p><p>　　Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) was developed by Roger Fowler and Gunther Kress in the late 1970s and early 1980s．Systemic-functional linguistics is the major methodological resource of critica

8、l linguistics which sees discourse as a social practice and hence pays special attention to the study of the social and ideological factors in its production，distribution and interpretation．The aim of analysis is mainly

9、to identify and analyse those ideological assumptions hidden in a text that have larg</p><p>　　Key words: Critical Discourse Analysis; ideology; systemic-functional linguistics; inaugural addresses</p>

10、<p><b>　　Contents</b></p><p><b>　　摘要I</b></p><p>　　AbstractII</p><p>　　1. Introduction1</p><p>　　1.1 Background of the study1</p&g

11、t;<p>　　1.2 Main purpose of this paper2</p><p>　　2. About CDA and Ideology3</p><p>　　2.1 A brief review of Critical Discourse Analysis3</p><p>　　2.2 The principles of CDA

12、4</p><p>　　2.3 What is ideology?5</p><p>　　3. Theoretical Foundation7</p><p>　　3.1 The ideational function7</p><p>　　3.2 The interpersonal function9</p><

13、p>　　3.3 The textual function9</p><p>　　4. A Critical Discourse Analysis of Kennedy’s & Obama’s Inaugural Speeches10</p><p>　　4.1 Data collection and procedure10</p><p>　　4

14、.2 Transitivity10</p><p>　　4.3 Mood system12</p><p>　　4.4 Nominalization13</p><p>　　5. Conclusion15</p><p>　　5.1 Summary of the thesis15</p><p>　　5.2

15、Limitations of the study16</p><p>　　Bibliography17</p><p>　　Acknowledgements錯(cuò)誤!未定義書簽。</p><p>　　1. Introduction</p><p>　　1.1 Background of the study</p><p&

16、gt;　　An ‘‘inaugural address’’ is the presidential speech given at inauguration ceremony which aims to maintain social stability and governments’ smooth functioning，to get the audience to accept the dominant ideological r

17、epresentations and to identify with him／her．This kind of speech is American oriented，strategy oriented and spirit oriented．Different from many other forms of political discourses，inaugural address is produced to reflect

18、the fundamental political values and embody ideologies of the pre</p><p>　　Presidential inaugural addresses can be studied from many perspectives．Traditional discourse studies are conducted from the perspect

19、ive of topic，lexical style and rhetorical features，which seems to be rather superficial．Since political discourse can only be adequately described and analyzed when we take the contextual environment into consideration a

20、nd spell out the social interface that relates it to the socially shared political representations that control political actions，processes and syst</p><p>　　The word ‘‘critical’’ originates from Greek word

21、“critic”．It means “understanding the dialectical relationship between language and ideology hidden in the discourse”．Since the publication of Language and Control (R．Fowler, G Kress，Trew, 1979)，critical discourse analysi

22、s has been a key term for the linguists．According to Van Dijk, Critical Discourse Analysis is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse，dominance，and inequality are enacted

23、，reproduced</p><p>　　1.2 Main purpose of this paper</p><p>　　Firstly, the aim of the study is to determine if there is a practical method that can be used to reveal the ideology concealed in a p

24、olitical speech and to point out politicians’ manipulation of linguistic tools to accomplish their purposes．When talking about political speeches，people usually pay more attention to the “excellent speech skills”，but not

25、 to the aims and methods behind them．</p><p>　　Then we all know that when people read or hear something, they just passively accepted the producer’s ideas or beliefs without rethinking about them．Questions s

26、uch as “Is it really true?’’ and “Why did he／she express that kind of view?” were hardly noticed by them．Thus the thesis also intends to raise and foster people’s critical awareness，help them cultivate their sensitivity

27、to the controlling power of the discourse over them and develop their critical reading ability．</p><p>　　Thirdly, the critical discourse analysis of the speech discourses is fundamentally based on the System

28、ic-functional Grammar, at the heart of which is the view that language is a social process．The analysis focuses on the internal features and external</p><p>　　effects of the discourse．This critical viewpoint

29、 of the discourse is comprehensive and</p><p>　　objective．It brings efficient methods to study the relationship among language，ideology and power．This new point of view of analyzing the politic speeches will

30、 enable us to put our theoretical knowledge into practice.</p><p>　　Finally, inaugural addresses are a significant part of the inauguration ceremony，establishing the keynote of the ceremony and drawing back

31、the prologue of the governorship of the new administration．They are the most realistic，comprehensive and specific recordings of history，shaping an epitome of the development of United Sates．They provide us with a stand a

32、nd perspective to know about the past，the present and the future of the United Sates．Obviously，this new perspective is the important value fo</p><p>　　2. About CDA and Ideology</p><p>　　2.1 A br

33、ief review of Critical Discourse Analysis </p><p>　　According to Fairclough(1992：12-13)，discourse analysis approaches can be divided into two types：non-critical and critical approaches．Non-critical approache

34、s mainly concentrate on pure description and analysis of grammatical rules，textual rules，rhetorical rules as well as coherence and cohesion of discourse．Without considering social and historical context, these approaches

35、 tend to be superficial and have their limitations to some extent．While the critical approach to discourse analysis mainly re</p><p>　　CDA is the achievements of the British and Australian pioneers of critic

36、al linguistics, especially Fowler, Kress，Van Dijk and Fairclough．This term was first put forward in 1979 in the book entitled Language and Control by Roger Fowler, Gunther Kress，and Robert Hodge，and one of the methods of

37、 discourse analysis．Critical Discourse Analysis takes the study of language as a starting point for their research, and mainly focused on the critical study of public or non-literary discourses．It is a social</p>

38、<p>　　Summarizing the work in CDA，Kress explains that unlike discourse analysis or text linguistics with their descriptive goals，CDA has “the larger political aim of putting the forms of texts，the processes of produ

39、ction of texts，and the process of reading，together with the structures of power that have given rise to them，into crisis”(Kress，1990：85)．According to him, CDA has now become an area of study with a variety of approaches

40、in each of a number of disciplines，which aims to “provide a better unde</p><p>　　Generally speaking，the main aim of CDA is to explore the dialectical connections between discourse practices，social practices，

41、and social structures，connections that might be opaque to the lay person．As Wodak proposes that critical analysis should not remain descriptive and neutral(Wodak, 1989), the interests guiding such an analysis are aimed a

42、t uncovering injustice and inequality, taking sides with the powerless and suppressed．</p><p>　　To understand CDA, two terms need to be explained．One is the word “critical”．According to Xin Bin(2000：14)，“cri

43、tical” in CDA firstly means that this kind of discourse analysis is to find the relationships between ideas，which are implied in the words，and their social conditions in which the ideas exist．Secondly, it means that CDA

44、is to expose certain connections between language，power and ideology, which people are unconscious of.</p><p>　　2.2 The principles of CDA</p><p>　　The principles of CDA outlined by the represent

45、atives (Fairclough，1995；Kress，1991；Hodge&Kress，1993；Van Dijk, 1998a；Wodak，1996) can be summarized as follows：</p><p>　　1．Language is a social practice through which the world is represented．</p>&

46、lt;p>　　2．Discourse／language use as a form of social practice in itself not only represents and signifies other social practices but also constitutes other social practice such as the exercise of power, domination，prej

47、udice，resistance and so forth．</p><p>　　3．Texts acquire their meanings by the dialectical relationship between texts and the social subjects：writers and readers，who always operate with various degrees of cho

48、ice and access to texts and means of interpretation．</p><p>　　4．Linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary．They are purposeful whether the choices are conscious or unconscious．</p><p>

49、　　5．Power relations are produced，exercised，and reproduced through discourse．</p><p>　　6．All speakers and writers operate from specific discursive practices originating in special interests and aims，which inv

50、olve inclusions and exclusions．</p><p>　　7．Discourse is historical in the sense that texts acquire their meanings by being situated in specific social，cultural and ideological contexts，and in time and</p&

51、gt;<p><b>　　space．</b></p><p>　　8．CDA not only interprets texts，but also explains them．</p><p>　　From the above principles，we can see that text is not only a transparent group

52、 of</p><p>　　words，but also is produced in a certain context and out of a certain purpose．So it</p><p>　　contains different ideology, culture，history and some other sides in society．In another w

53、ord，it is a kind of social practice．And the aim of CDA is just to find out the</p><p>　　implications and assumptions hidden in the discourse and cultivate people’s ability and awareness of learning or readin

54、g discourse in a critical way，and to do further studies in this field in order to make more contributions to the current linguistic theories and methods．</p><p>　　2.3 What is ideology?</p><p>　　

55、Ideologies are representations of who we are, what we stand for, what our values are, and what our relationships are with other groups, in particular our enemies or opponents, that is those who oppose what we stand for,

56、threaten our interests and prevent us from equal access to social resources and human rights. In other words, an ideology is a self-serving schema for the representation of Us and Them as social groups. (黃勤, 2007)</p&

57、gt;<p>　　Dijk understands the social functions or accomplishments of ideology by starting answering the two questions：why indeed do people need ideologies in the first place and what do people do with ideologies?

58、The answer to that question is that ideologies ‘‘a(chǎn)re developed by dominant groups in order to reproduce and legitimate their domination”(Dijk，1997)．The main social function of ideologies is helping to solve a specific pr

59、oblem：the ‘‘coordination” of the acts or practices of individual social memb</p><p>　　Ideology, in CDA，is seen as an important aspect of establishing and maintaining unequal power relations，and it is through

60、 discourse that ideologies are forged，reinforced and reproduced．CDA takes a particular interest in the ways in which language mediates ideology in a variety of social institutions．</p><p>　　By ideology, crit

61、ical linguists do not mean a set of false ideas，or politically undesirable beliefs or a distorted consciousness．More pertinent is a neutral definition which relates to the ways in which people represent their relationshi

62、p to the conditions of the existence(Fowler, 1991)and “the fundamental social cognitions that reflect the basic aims，interests and values of groups”(van Dijk, 1993)．</p><p>　　Critical linguists are mainly co

63、ncerned with the discovery and interpretation of ideology, seeking to show how the meaning of the discourse mobilized by linguistic means serves to establish, sustain or challenge，undermine，and subvert existing relations

64、 of power．This paper will take Obama’s and Kennedy’s inaugural addresses as examples to make a detailed analysis in order to reveal the ideologies embedded in the discourses. </p><p>　　3. Theoretical Foundat

65、ion </p><p>　　In the book An Introduction to Functional Grammar(Halliday, 1985)，Halliday developed a theory of the fundamental functions of language in which he analyzed lexicogrammar into three broad metafu

66、nctions：‘‘ideational function” (“experiential function”)，“interpersonal function” and “textual function”．Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of the world，and is concerned with a different mode of

67、meaning of clauses：</p><p>　　(1)．The ideational function，which “serves for the expression of context”，(i.e. of</p><p>　　the speaker’s experience of the real world，including the inner world of co

68、nsciousness), is concerned with clauses as representations．</p><p>　　(2)．The interpersonal function is the function language has to establish and maintain social relations．Language is used for the expression

69、 of social roles，which include the communication roles created by language itself．For example，this include</p><p>　　the role of questioner or respondent，which we take on by asking or answering a question，as

70、well as the interaction between one person and another by which means things get done．It is concerned with clauses as exchanges．</p><p>　　(3)．The textual function is the function language providing links wit

71、h itself and with features of the situation in which it is used．This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct “text”，or connect passages of discourse that is situational relevant；and enables the listener or rea

72、der to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences．It is concerned with clauses as messages．</p><p>　　The first two metafunctions of language rely on the textual function，which enables the other two to

73、 be realized，and which ensures that the language used is relevant．The textual function represents the language user’s text-forming potential．These three metafunctions of language are realized by various linguistic featur

74、es，as will be discussed in the following.</p><p>　　3.1 The ideational function </p><p>　　Transitivity is a semantic system to express people’s experience of the inner world as well as the real w

75、orld, so it can best present ideational function in the language. The word “transitivity” here does not mean the same as in traditional grammar．Traditionally, there is a syntactic distinction between transitive and int

76、ransitive verbs with transitivity referring to the feature of a verb that determines whether it has an object or not．For example：</p><p>　　Mary beats the boy．（1）</p><p>　　The boy ran．（2）</p&g

77、t;<p>　　But this syntactic distinction oversimplifies or neglects some important differences of meaning between various types of clauses．In SFG however, the term is used in a much wider sense．Transitivity refers t

78、o a system for describing the whole clause，rather than just the verb and its object．It has been employed to uncover why certain meanings are dominant or obvious while others are recessive or hidden．In this way, the trans

79、itivity model provides one useful method of investigation.</p><p>　　A system of transitivity is composed of: (1) the process itself which will be expressed by the verb phrase in the clause，(2)participants in

80、 the process which is typically realized by pronouns or noun phrases in the clause, (3)circumstances associated with the process which are normally expressed by adverbial and prepositional phrases．</p><p>　　

81、Altogether there are six processes in transitivity system．Among the six，the main types are material，mental and relational processes．Material processes are processes of doing，mental progresses are those of sensing，and rel

82、ational processes are those of being．The other three are located at the three boundaries．On the borderline of material and mental are the behavioral processes，which are processes of physiological and psychological behavi

83、or；on the borderline of mental and relational are verbal pro</p><p>　　The choice of different processes is very important in political speeches when the addresser has more than one option available．</p>

84、;<p>　　3.2 The interpersonal function</p><p>　　Language does not only represent ideas，the “going-on around ‘us’ and inside ‘us’，but also enables ‘us’ to establish and maintain connections with others，

85、which is the function of interpersonal metafunction．For interpersonal metafunction，the speaker is using language as the means of his own intrusion into the speech event．</p><p>　　The grammatical resource to

86、realize interpersonal function is by mood and</p><p>　　modality．The mood consists of two parts：</p><p>　　(1)The Subject，which is part of a verbal group．</p><p>　　(2)The Finite opera

87、tor, which is part of a verbal group．</p><p>　　The Subject，“supplies the rest of what it takes to form a proposition，namely, something by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed or denied” (Hallid

88、ay, 1994：76)．</p><p>　　The Finite is the means by which the speaker signals three basic kinds of claims about the validity of the proposition．They are Primary Tense，Polarity and Modality．By changing the sequ

89、ence of the subject and the finite can the clause realize its interpersonal function．There are three resources in the course of information exchange：the declarative mood which serves to bring forth a statement；the interr

90、ogative mood serves to pose a question and the imperative mood which serves to express commands．</p><p>　　3.3 The textual function</p><p>　　The textual metafunction is concerned with how speaker

91、s or writers construct their messages．According to Halliday’s Functional Grammar(Halliday, 1994)，a clause can be constructed by “theme” and “rheme’’．Theme is the starting point of information．It is also the departure of

92、the message and the starting-point of the speaker which is normally realized by nominal groups(nominalization)，adverbial groups or prepositional phrases．Once the theme is definite，the rest of the clause is rheme．It is us

93、ually </p><p>　　Often in a clause，information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable is Given, while that unrecoverable to the listener is New. What is treated as recoverable may be because it has b

94、een mentioned before，something that is in the situation or something that is not around at all but the speaker wants to present as Given for rhetorical purposes．Likewise，what is treated as non-recoverable may be somethin

95、g that has not been mentioned；but it may be something unexpected, whether previously ment</p><p>　　4. A Critical Discourse Analysis of Kennedy’s & Obama’s Inaugural Speeches</p><p>　　4.1 Dat

96、a collection and procedure</p><p>　　The data in this thesis are collected from the official website of American White House. Kennedy’s & Obama’s speeches are analyzed from the perspective of Halliday’ s

97、systematic-functional grammar, which consists of three aspects：ideational，interpersonal and textual metafunction．In order to get a reliable research result，the research will follow several steps．Firstly, some typical cla

98、uses in their speeches are chosen as the data for analysis．Secondly, after some analysis, we may find out what ki</p><p>　　4.2 Transitivity </p><p>　　As we have discussed in the previous chapter

99、, transitivity is one of the determinant parts of ideational metafunctions．The way in which transitivity carries out this ideational function is realized by processes．The same event can be described and interpreted by di

100、fferent types of processes in transitivity system．The choice among different types of processes and locations of the participant can reveal the ideological assumptions of the speaker and his or her political attitudes to